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    -(e)lings
    quickinfo

    The suffix -(e)lings is completely unproductive. It creates adverbs from nouns (for example krús cross > krúslings crosswise) and verbs (roere to touch > roer(de)lings closely). A minor base category are adverbs. The meanings of derivations in -(e)lings are diverse. In general, they indicate a manner that is related to the meaning of base form.

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    [+]General properties

    The meanings of derivations with -(e)lings are diverse. In general, they indicate a manner that is related to the meaning of the base form. The suffix -(e)lings can derive adverbs from nouns, verbs and, even more marginally, adverbs. These various bases will be discussed in the sections below.

    Forms like mûnling oral, ûnderling mutual and sûnderling stranger (without -s) are loans from Dutch. They are treated here as derivations with the suffix -(e)ling.

    [+]Noun as base

    The suffix -(e)lings can derive adverbs from nouns. Examples are given in the table below:

    Table 1
    Base form Derivation
    each eye eachlings right in the face
    rêch back rêchlings / rêgelings backwards
    side side sydlings indirectly
    tiid time tydlings gradually
    ears arse earslings misplaced
    ein end einlings finally
    The adverb bek(ke)lings backwards has an opaque base *bek back.
    extra
    Hoasfuotlings on socks and ienlings singly

    In hoasfuotlings on socks, the base form is actually hoasfuotling, which means that it would not be a derivation with the suffix -(e)lings. According to Hoekstra (1998:163), hoasfuotlings originated from a confusion of the old-fashioned adverbial wordgroup op hoasfuotlingen on socks with the adverbial derivation -lings.

    The derivation ienlings singly is possibly not a derivation from the numeral ien one + -(e)lings, but of ienling + -s.

    [+]Verb as base

    The suffix -(e)lings can derive adverbs from verbal stems. Examples are given in the table below:

    Table 2
    Base form Derivation
    trobbelje to hop trobbelings contiguous with legs and feet
    bûkelje to jump over a ditch in bent posture with the pole under one arm bûkelings with a pole under one arm
    rêchbrekke to jump over a ditch with the pole diagonally behind rêchbreklings with the pole diagonally behind
    roere to touch roer(de)lings almost touching (in a move)
    Mostly, the variant -lings is chosen. In roerdelings, we see insertion of /d/ after /r/.

    [+]Adverb as base

    Adjectival/adverbial bases are quite marginal. There are only two examples, which can possibly best be interpreted as having been derived from an adverb. These are dwers transverse > dwerslings sideways and koart short > koartlings recently. We see that only the variant -lings is involved here.

    [+]Phonological properties

    There is no clear rule when to use schwa in -(e)lings [(ə)lIŋs]. Both forms can occur, however with the form without -e- having a certain preference.

    The suffix -(e)lings behaves like a phonological word of its own, and thus receives secondary stress, whereas the main stress on the base word is preserved.

    [+]Morphological potential

    -(e)lings is unproductive in Frisian. It does not feed further word formation, apart from tydlings gradually, which can be the base for the suffix -wei: in tydlingswei gradually.

    extra
    Literature

    This topic is based on Hoekstra (1998:163-164).

    References
    • Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
    About this article
    Author(s): Siebren Dyk, Joke Weening
    Category: Frisian Morphology
    Keywords: suffixadverbderivation
    Version: 1.0, March 2016
    Version history:
    version editor(s) date remarks
    1.0 Siebren Dyk March 2016
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