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    Breaking: the environment
    quickinfo

    Breaking is the alternation between the centring diphthongs /iə, yə, uə, ɪə, oə/ in simplex words and the glide + vowel sequences [jɪ, jø, wo, jɛ, wa] in complex words. It occurs in a wide variety of morphological environments, an overview of which is presented in this topic.

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    The morphological environments in which Breaking occurs are enumerated and exemplified in the overview in (1), which is largely based on Tiersma (1979:19-46) and Tiersma (1980:56-58):

    1
    Overview of the contexts of Breaking (together with some examples)
    a. In inflected forms
    a1. Noun plurals
    stien /stiən/ stone ~ stiennen [stjɪnn̩] stones
    tried /triəd/ thread ~ triedden [trjɪdn̩] threads
    flues /flyəz/ fleece ~ fluezen [fljøzn̩] fleeces
    koer /kuər/ basket ~ kuorren [kworn̩] baskets
    foet /fuət/ foot ~ fuotten [fwotn̩] feet
    goes /guəz/ goose ~ guozzen [gwozn̩] geese
    beam /bɪəm/ tree ~ beammen [bjɛmm̩] trees
    tean /tɪən/ toe ~ teannen [tjɛnn̩] toes
    doar /doər/ door ~ doarren [dwarn̩] doors
    soan /soən/ son ~ soannen [swann̩] sons
    a2. The comparative and/or superlative of adjectives
    fier /fiər/ far ~ fierder [fjɪdr̩] farther ~ fierst [fjɪst] farthest
    swier /swiər/ heavy ~ swierder [swɪdr̩] heavier ~ swierst [swɪst] heaviest
    ear /ɪər/ early ~ earder [jɛdr̩] earliest
    leaf /lɪəv/ gladly ~ leaver [ljɛ(:)vər] rather ~ leafst [ljɛfst] preferably
    moai /mo:j/ beautiful ~ moaier [mwa.jər] more beautiful ~ moaist [mwa.jst] most beautiful
    a3. Verbal forms
    sliep(e) /sliəp/ to sleep
    do sliepst [sljɪpst] you sleep
    hy sliept [sljɪpt] he sleeps
    ik sliepte [sljɪptə] I slept
    wy hawwe sliept [sljɪpt] we have slept
    doar(e) /doər/ dare
    do doarst [dwast] you dare
    hy doart [dwat] he dares
    ik doarst [dwast] I dared
    wy hawwe doarst [dwast] we have dared
    dream(e) /drɪəm/ to dream
    do dreamst [drjɛmst] you dream
    hy dreamt [drjɛmt] he dreams
    ik dreamde [drjɛmdə] I dreamt
    wy hawwe dreamd [drjɛmt] we have dreamt
    [Note: Originally, doare is a preterite-present verb in Frisian, so the third person singular present tense form was hy doar [doər] he dares, without Breaking. Due to leveling, the third person singular present tense form is becoming, or has become, hy doart [doət], made up of verb stem + /t/, as is the normal case with verbs with an infinitive ending in /ə/. Significantly, the broken form only shows up in doart, where final [-t] provides a context for shortening, hence for Breaking (Tiersma (1979:27)).]
    b. In derived forms
    b1a. Diminutives
    stien /stiən/ stone ~ stientsje [stjɪntsjə] small stone
    tried /triəd/ thread ~ triedsje [trjɪtsjə] little thread
    brief /briəv/ letter ~ briefke [brjɪfkə] note
    papier /papiər/ paper ~ papierke [papjɪrkə] piece of paper
    flues /flyəz/ fleece ~ fljuske [fljøskə] small fleece
    foet /fuət/ foot ~ fuotsje [fwotsjə] small foot
    koer /kuər/ basket ~ kuorke [kworkə] small basket
    beam /bɪəm/ tree ~ beamke [bjɛmkə] small tree
    tean /tɪən/ toe ~ teantsje [tjɛntsjə] small toe
    doar /doər/ door ~ doarke [dwarkə] small door
    soan /soən/ son ~ soantsje [swantsjə] little son
    [Note: A pattern concerning the occurrence of Breaking in nouns is that when the plural form shows Breaking, the diminutive tends to do so as well. The implicational relation thus is from plural to diminutive. As to Vowel Shortening, this works just the other way around: if the diminutive shows shortening, the plural form tends to do so as well. It should be borne in mind, however, that all this is no more than a tendency. To give an example, the diminutives of brief letter and papier paper are briefke [brjɪfkə] note and papierke [papjɪrkə] piece of paper, with a broken diphthong, whereas the plural forms are brieven [briəvən] and papieren [papiərn̩], with a centring one.]
    b1b. 'Diminutive verbs' (with-/k/)
    b1b1. From nouns
    boer /buər/ farmer ~ buork(je) [bwork] run a farm
    hoer /huər/ whore ~ huork(je) [vwork] to whore, go to prostitutes
    koer /kuər/ basket ~ kuork(je) [kwork] make baskets
    toer /tuər/ tower ~ tuork(je) [twork] to tower
    stoel /stuəl/ chair ~ stuolk(je) [stwolk] be based (on)
    noas /noəz/ nose ~ noask(je) [nwask] nose around
    priem /priəm/ awl, bodkin ~ priemk(je) [prjɪmk] to pierce
    b1b2. From adjectives
    blier /bliər/ cheerful ~ blierk(je) [bljɪrk] look cheerful
    fier /fiər/ far ~ fierk(je) [fjɪrk] stare into the distance
    skier /skiər/ greyish ~ skierk(je) [skjɪrk] become grey
    b1b3. From verbs
    slier(e) /sliər/ to slide ~ slierk(je) [sljɪrk] slide softly
    loer(e) /luər/ to leer (at) ~ luork(je) [lwork] to peep, to peek
    gloer(e) /ɡluər/ to peep, to peek ~ gluork(je) [ɡlwork] to peep, to peek
    beroer(e) /bəruər/ to touch ~ beruork(je) [bərwork] to fix (up)
    b2. With certain suffixes
    b2a. With -(ich)heid -/(əx)hid/
    wier /viər/ true ~ wierheid [vjɪrhit] truth
    klear /klɪər/ clear ~ klearrichheid [kljɛrəxhit] clarity
    b2b. With -ens -/əns/
    moai /mo:j/ beautiful ~ moaiens [mwa.jə̃s] beauty
    swier /swiər/ heavy ~ swierens [swɪrn̩s] heaviness
    wiet /viət/ wet ~ wiettens [vjɪtn̩s] wetness
    b2c. With -te -/tə/
    b2c1. From adjectives
    fier /fiər/ far ~ fierte [fjɪtə] distance
    grien /ɡriən/ green ~ griente [ɡrjɪntə] vegetable
    swier /swiər/ heavy ~ swierte [swɪtə] weight; heaviness
    wiet /viət/ wet ~ wiette [vjɪtə] wetness
    b2c2. From nouns
    beam /bɪəm/ tree ~ beamte [bjɛmtə] trees
    stien /stiən/ stone ~ stiente [stjɪntɛ] rock; stone
    b2d. With -sel -/səl/
    ried(e) /riəd/ to guess ~ riedsel [rjɪtsl̩] riddle
    b2e. With -ling -/lɪŋ/
    goate /ɡoətə/ gutter ~ goatling [ɡwatlɪŋ] huge kettle
    hoale /hoələ/ cave, hole ~ hoalling [vwalɪŋ] fingerstall
    keat /kɪət/ link ~ keatling [kjɛtlɪŋ] chain
    ien /iən/ one ~ ienling [jɪ̃lɪŋ] only child
    [Note: The words twilling [twɪlɪŋ] twins(< twjilling) and trjilling [trjɪlɪŋ] (set of) triplets derive from the obsolete numerals twie two and trie /triə/ three (nowadays twa and trije, respectively).]
    b2f. With -ing -/ɪŋ/
    flier /fliər/ floor ~ flierring [fljɪrɪŋ] attic
    b2g. With -eftich -/ɛftəɣ/
    beam /bɪəm/ tree ~ beameftich /bjɛmɛftəx/ tree-like
    stien /stiən/ stone ~ stieneftich /stjɪnɛftəx/ stone-like
    [Note: -eftich has all the morphological properties of a suffix, but phonologically it behaves as a word; beameftich, therefore, is both a derivation and a (kind of) compound.]
    b2h. With -(er)ich -(ər)əɣ/
    beam /bɪəm/ tree ~ beammich [bjɛməx] wooded, forested
    blier /bliər/ blister ~ blierrich [bljɪrəx] with blisters (of paint)
    bloed /bluəd/ blood ~ bluodderich [blwodərəx] bloody
    keal /kɪəl/ calf ~ keallich [kjɛləx] young and foolish
    kies /kiəz/ molar ~ kiezzich [kjɪzəx] moody, surly
    miel /miəl/ milk yield ~ miellich [mjɪləx] varying in milk yield (of a cow)
    stien /stiən/ stone ~ stiennich [stjɪnəx] stony
    b2i. With -lik -/lək/
    foar /foər/ before ~ foarlik [fwalək] precocious
    goed /ɡuəd/ good ~ guodlik [gwodlək] gentle; meek
    ien /iən/ one ~ ienlik [[jɪ̃lək] solitary, lonely
    noed /nuəd/ concern ~ nuodlik [nwodlək] risky, dangerous
    wier /viər/ true ~ wierlik(en) [vjɪlək(ən)] truly
    b2j. Wint -en -/ən/
    fear /fɪər/ feather ~ fearren [fjɛ(:)rn̩] of feathers
    spoen /spuən/ chip ~ spuonnen [spwonn̩] of split-wood
    stien /stiən/ stone ~ stiennen [stjɪnn̩] stone, of stone
    tien /tiən/ osier ~ tiennen [tjɪnn̩] of osier
    b2k. With -skip -/skɪp/
    broer /bruər/ brother ~ bruorskip [brworskɪp] brotherhood
    boade /boədə/ messenger ~ boadskip [bwatskɪp] message
    keap(je) /kɪəp/ to buy ~ keappenskip [kjɛpm̩skɪp] trade, business
    b2l. With -sum -/səm/
    ien /iən/ one ~ iensum [jɪ̃:sm̩] solitary, lonely
    b2m. With -sk -/sk/
    moarn /moən/ morning ~ moarnsk [mwã:sk] moody in the morning
    priem /priəm/ awl, bodkin ~ priemsk [prjɪmsk] with a very sharp point
    b2n. With -s -/s/
    moarn /moən/ morning ~ moarns [mwã:s] in the morning
    b2o. With -ster -/stər/
    Boarn /boən/ name of a village
    Boarnster [bwã:str̩] inhabitant of, related to Boarn
    Tersoal /tərsoəl/ name of a village
    Tersoalster [tərswalstr̩] inhabitant of, related to Tersoal
    Ie /iə/ name of a village
    Iester [jɪstr̩] inhabitant of, related to Ie
    b2p. In noun/adjective/verb-to-verb conversion
    b2p1. From nouns
    flier /fliər/ floor ~ flier(je) [fljɪr] lay a floor
    hier /hiər/ hair ~ ferhier(je) [fəjɪr] to moult
    priem /priəm/ awl, bodkin ~ priem(je) [prjɪm] to pierce
    sied /siəd/ seed ~ sied(zje) [sjɪd] to sow
    lean /lɪən/ pay, wages ~ lean(je) [ljɛn] to pay; be worth
    heak /hɪək/ hook ~ heak(je) [jɛk] to hook (up)
    keal /kɪəl/ calf ~ keal(je) [kjɛl] to calve
    foer /fuər/ feed, forage ~ fuor(je) [fwor] to feed
    stoel /stuəl/ chair ~ stuol(je) [stwol] be based (on)
    b2p2. From adjectives
    koel /kuəl/ cool ~ kuol(je) [kwol] to cool (down/off)
    weak /vɪək/ soft ~ weak(je) [vjɛk] to soak
    wiet /viət/ wet ~ wiet(sje) [vjɪt] to wet, to moisten
    b2p3. From verbs
    gloer(e) /ɡluər/ to peep, to peek ~ gluor(je) [ɡlwor] to peep, to peek
    beroer(e) /bəruər/ to touch ~ beruor(je) [bərwor] to fix (up)
    c. In compounds
    c1. The left-hand part
    c1a. With a noun/verb/adjective as such
    c1a1. With a noun
    stien /stiən/ stone ~ stien#krobbe /stjɪn/ wood louse
    ierde /iədə/ earth, soil ~ ierd#bei /jɪd/ strawberry
    koer /kuər/ basket ~ kuor#fol /kwor/ basketful
    stoel /stuəl/ chair ~ stuol#kessen /stwol/ chair-cushion
    ear /ɪər/ ear ~ ear#izer /jɛr/ head brooch
    earm /ɪərm/ arm ~ earm#takke /jɛrm/ elbow
    koal /koəl/ cabbage ~ koal#sied /kwal/ rape
    kloat /kloət/ ball, testicle ~ kloat#sek /klwat/ bastard; idiot
    c1a2. With a verb
    sliep(e) /sliəp/ to sleep ~ sliep#keamer /sljɪp/ bedroom
    c1a3. With an adjective
    heal /hɪəl/ half ~ heal#oere /jɛl/ half an hour
    earm /ɪərm/ poor ~ earm#moed /jɛrm/ poverty
    [Note: Tiersma (1979:43-45) notices that some left-hand members of a compound may occur with either a broken or a centring diphthong. An example is the verb stem sliep /sliəp/ sleep, which shows up as /sljɪp/ - in sliep#keamer bedroom and as /sliəp/ - in sliep#sek sleeping bag. There is clear tendency for new compounds not to occur with a broken diphthong. Existing compounds with a broken diphthong, moreover, tend to be reanalyzed with a centring one. The part sliep- of sliepkeamer bedroom is a case in point; it used to be realized as [sljɪp-], but it is being replaced by [sliəp-], especially with younger speakers. Breaking is thus receding in scope here, as it is in general. This is also shown by forms like moal#pûde /mwal/ - flour bag and dea#kiste /djɛ-/ coffin; these were the normal realizations in 19th century Frisian, but the current forms have become /moəl/ and /dɪə/.]
    c1b. With a noun/adjective extended with schwa
    c1b1. With a noun
    skiep /skiəp/ sheep ~ skieppe#tsiis /skjɪpə/ sheep's cheese
    rier /riər/ heifer ~ rierre#stâl /rjɪrə/ stall for a heifer
    stoel /stuəl/ chair ~ stuolle#dûns /stwolə/ musical chairs
    heak /hɪək/ hook ~ heakke#krús /jɛkə/ swastika
    keal /kɪəl/ calf ~ kealle#fleis /kjɛlə/ veal
    broer /bruər/ brother ~ bruorre#folk /brworə/ kinspeople
    c1b2. With an adjective
    oar /oər/ other ~ oarre#mem /vwarə/ grandmother
    c2. The right-hand part
    hear /hɪər/ lord ~ lân#hearre /jɛrə/ landlord
    [Note: Breaking in the (unstressed) right-hand part of a compound is very uncommon. It may therefore not be without significance that in lân#hearre landlord, the monosyllabic noun hear lord has been extended with schwa, which makes for a favourable context for Breaking. There seem to be two more such instances of Breaking, viz. skoar#stien [skwas(t)jən] chimney (lit. supporting stone) − see Tiersma (1979:45-46) − and in the seven cardinal numbers ending in -tjin teen, for instance fjir#tjin [fjɪtjən] fourteen and san#tjin [sɔntjən] seventeen. These might be assumed to derive from the broken form of stien /stiən/ stone and tien /ti.ən/ ten, [stjɪn] and [tjɪn], respectively. However, since the full vowel [ɪ] does not show up in these words, the schwa in skoarstien [skwas(t)jən] and trettjin [trɛtjən], fjirtjin [fjɪtjən], etc. can just as well be considered the direct outcome of reduction of the diphthong [iə], so that Breaking can be confined to stressed syllables (see Hoekstra and Tiersma (1994:293) for this line of reasoning).]
    c3. In synthetic compounds
    achtjierrich /axt+iər+əɣ/ (eight+year+ich) [axtjɪrəx] eight years old
    fiifjierrich /fi:v+iər+əɣ/ (five+year+ich) [fi:vjɪrəx] five years old
    extra

    There are doublets of verbs with a centring and with a broken diphthong (Tiersma (1979:28-29)); see the overview below:

    i
    a. /ɪə/ ~ /jɛ/
          hear(e) /hɪər/ ~ hearr(e) /jɛr/ to hear
          meal(e) /mɪəl/ ~ meall(e) /njɛm/ to grind
          neam(e) /nɪəm/ ~ neamm(e) /njɛm/ to call, to name; to mention
    b. /iə/ ~ /jɪ/
          bien(e) /biən/ ~ bjinn(e) /bjɪn/ to polish; to scrub
          fiel(e) /fiəl/ ~ fiell(e) /fjɪl/ to feel
          kiem(e) /kiəm/ ~ kjimm(e) /kjɪm/ to comb
          spiel(e) /spiəl/ ~ spiell(e) /spjɪl/ to rinse (out (of))
    c. /oə/ ~ /wa/
          doar(e) /doər/ ~ doarr(e) /dwar/ dare

    The alternation may have set out as 'normal' instances of Breaking, but has become a matter of dialectal variation: the forms without Breaking are found in the north, those with Breaking in the south of the language area. It is a striking fact that it is predominantly the front vowels which take part in the alternation.

    extra

    The Breaking alternation belongs to the main (and mainland) dialects Klaaifrysk and Wâldfrysk. The island dialects, instead, have a shortening relation, that is, where Klaaifrysk and Wâldfrysk have the glide + vowel sequences [jɪ, jø, wo, jɛ, wa] in complex words, these dialects have a short vowel, as appears from the examples of word pairs below (taken from the dialect of the island of Schiermonnikoog):

    Table 1
    Schiermonnikoogs Mainland Frisian Gloss
    pr[iə]m ~ pr[ɪ]mmen pr[iə]m ~ pr[jɪ]mmen awl ~ awls
    tr[iə]d ~ tr[ɪ]dden tr[iə]d ~ tr[jɪ]dden thread ~ threads
    st[yə]l ~ st[o]llen st[uə]l ~ st[wo]llen chair ~ chairs
    f[yə]t ~ f[o]tten f[uə]t ~ f[wo]tten foot ~ feet
    p[aj]l ~ p[ɛ]llen p[ɪə]l ~ p[jɛ]llen post ~ posts
    h[aj]k ~ h[ɛ]kken h[ɪə]k ~[jɛ]kken hook ~ hooks
    b[øə]r ~ b[ɐ]rje b[oə]r ~ b[wa]rje drill ~ to bore, to drill

    The third main dialect, Súdwesthoeksk, does not have the combinations [wa] and [wo], though it does have [jɪ] and [jɛ]. Since the latter do not occur in all words in which they can be expected, the words in which they do occur might be taken as loans from neighbouring Klaaifrysk. In many cases, Súdwesthoeksk has the short vowel [ɛ] or [ɪ] where Klaaifrysk has the glide + vowel sequence [jɛ] or [jɪ], as in b[ɛ]mmen ~ b[jɛ]mmen trees and str[ø]tte (< str[ɪ]tte) ~ str[jɪ]tte street. This pattern led Miedema (1958) to the conclusion that the island dialects never had Breaking, but only shortening of the long monophthongs (in simplex words, these developed into centring diphthongs after shortening had taken place). In doing so, he made a stand against the Frisian dialectologist J.J. Hof, who claimed − in Hof (1933) − that Súdwesthoeksk once had broken diphthongs, which have undergone simplification by deleting the glide portion (as a matter of fact, this kind of deletion is quite common in Súdwesthoeksk). This view was defended in Visser (1990) and, much more forcefully, in Versloot (2002). According to Versloot only the dialect of the island of Schiermonnikoog fares better with an analysis in terms of shortening of the long monophthong.

    extra

    In case the centring diphthong was preceded by a glide, Breaking resulted in a sequence of two glides; there are only instances with /wɪə/ (<wea>) and /wiə/ (<wie>), see the examples in (3):

    i
    sweal /swɪəl/ > [*swjɛl] > [swɛl] swallow
    swierder /swiər+ər/ > [*swjɪdr̩] > [swɪdr̩] heavier
    twielûd /twiə#lu:d/ > [*twjɪlu:t] > [twɪlu:t] diphthong
    twiere /twiərə/ > [*twjɪrə] > [twɪrə] whirlwind

    A sequence of two glides seems to be prohibited in Frisian. Although the right-hand glides − the ones which are part of the broken diphthong − systematically have to leave the field, the forms resulting from deletion of the left-hand glide − [sjɛl], [sjɪdr̩], [tjɪlu:t], and [tjɪrə] − are impeccable from a phonological/phonotactic point of view, cf. words like sjen /sjɛn/ see; look, sjippe /sjɪpə/ soap, and tjirk /tjɪrk/ redshank. The reason that, for instance, swirder (<swierder>) ousts sjirder might be that the former resembles the basic form swier+er more than does the latter.

    extra

    Breaking of [uə] in the sequence -joer- ( [-ju.ər-]) deserves some comment. Take the adjective djoer /djuər/ expensive, with Breaking in the comparative djoerder /djuər+ər/ more expensive and the superlative djoerst /djuər+st/ most expensive. In line with the scenario set out in the previous extra, the broken forms would have to be realized as [djodr̩] ( < [*djwodr̩]) and [djost] ( < [*djwost]), with deletion of stem-final /r/. However, their common realizations are [djødr̩] and [djøst]. More instances of the alternation [juər] (<joer>) ~ [jør] (<jur>) are given in (4):

    i
    fjoer fire ~ fjurke small fire , fjurje fire , fjurwurk firework
    stjoer steering wheel ~ stjurman helmsman
    Sjoerd man's name ~ Sjurdsje woman's name
    tsjoer tether ~ tsjurje tether

    Miedema (1958) doubts whether the alternation between fjoer and fjurje should be analyzed as an instance of Breaking. Instead, he proposes an analysis in which fjoer and fjurje have preserved the Old Frisian rising diphthong: fjoor [fio.r] ~ fjorren [fiorən], forms which have undergone diphthongization and palatalization, resulting in fjoer ~ fjurren . In this analysis, [jø] in fjurren is the continuation of a long vowel, shortened as early as in the Old Frisian period. Whatever the right analysis may turn out to be − Old Frisian shortening or Modern Frisian Breaking − the change from [o] to [ø] has to be accounted for separately. The vowel [ø] seems to be a compromise between the frontness of the glide [j] and the backness of the vowel [o].

    Not all instances of Breaking mentioned in the above overview are realized by all speakers. There is a lot of individual and dialectal variation. The spread of Breaking is also receding; there has been extensive leveling, mostly favouring the form with the centring diphthong, though there are also cases in which the broken diphthong has won the day (Tiersma (1978), Tiersma (1982), Tiersma (1983)). Clearly, Breaking no longer is a productive process.

    References
    • Hoekstra, Jarich & Tiersma, Peter Meijes1994FrisianKönig, Ekkehard & Auwera, Johan van der (eds.)The Germanic LanguagesRoutledge505-531
    • Hof, Jan Jelles1933Friesche dialectgeographieMartinus Nijhoff
    • Miedema, Hendrikus T.J1958De nieuwfriese 'breking' en zijn verspreidingTaal en Tongval148-156
    • Miedema, Hendrikus T.J1958De nieuwfriese 'breking' en zijn verspreidingTaal en Tongval148-156
    • Tiersma, Peter M1978Bidirectional leveling as evidence for relational rulesLingua4565-77
    • Tiersma, Peter M1979Breaking in West Frisian: a historical and synchronic approachUtrecht working papers in linguistics81-41
    • Tiersma, Peter M1979Breaking in West Frisian: a historical and synchronic approachUtrecht working papers in linguistics81-41
    • Tiersma, Pieter M1979Aspects of the phonology of Frisian based on the language of GrouMeidielingen fan de stúdzjerjochting Frysk oan de Frije Universiteit yn Amsterdam4
    • Tiersma, Pieter M1979Aspects of the phonology of Frisian based on the language of GrouMeidielingen fan de stúdzjerjochting Frysk oan de Frije Universiteit yn Amsterdam4
    • Tiersma, Pieter M1979Aspects of the phonology of Frisian based on the language of GrouMeidielingen fan de stúdzjerjochting Frysk oan de Frije Universiteit yn Amsterdam4
    • Tiersma, Pieter M1980The lexicon in phonological theoryBloomington, Ind.Indiana University Linguistics ClubThesis
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    About this article
    Author(s): Willem Visser
    Category: Frisian Phonology
    Keywords: breakingmorphophonological environment
    Version: 1.0, December 2015
    Version history:
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    1.0 Willem Visser December 2015
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