
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Two examples of adposition phrases which are modified appear below – one in which a noun phrase (NP) modifies an adposition phrase (PP), and the second in which an adverb modifies an PP:
['n goeie vier meter] agter hulle aan |
a good four meter behind them on |
at least four meters behind them |
[naby] aan die kerk |
close to the church |
Four types of modifiers are distinguished, namely:
- NPs as PP modifiers
- Adjectives as PP modifiers
- Adverbs as PP modifiers
- Adpositions as PP modifiers
Modifiers which are NPs can be found in front of adposition phrases.
a. | [drie dae] ná my bevalling | ||||||||||||||
three days after my giving.birth | |||||||||||||||
Three days after my giving birth |
b. | ['n paar honderd meter] agter ons | ||||||||||||||
a couple hundred meter behind us | |||||||||||||||
a couple of hundreds of meters behind us |
Modifiers which are NPs can also be found in front of postpositional phrases.
a. | ['n goeie vyf meter] tussen hulle | ||||||||||||||
a good five meter between them | |||||||||||||||
at least five meters between them |
b. | ['n hele ent] in die tuin in | ||||||||||||||
a whole distance the garden in | |||||||||||||||
quite some distance into the garden |
Modifiers which are NPs can also be found in front of adposition phrases that do not contain a complement, or in other words, in front of intransitive adposition phrases.
Toe hy orentkom, is die oortreder hom ['n hele ent] voor. |
when he upright.come go.PST the offender him a whole distance before |
When he came to his feet, the offender was quite a distance before him. |
The modifying NP may be built around an exact measure noun such as meter or sekonde second, as in this example:
a. | twee kilo bo sy normale gewig | ||||||||||||||
two kilo above his normal weight | |||||||||||||||
two kilos more than his normal weight |
The modifying noun may also be built around an inexact measure noun preceded by the indefinite article such as 'n entjie a short distance or 'n bietjie a little bit.
a. | 'n entjie anderkant die afdraaipad | ||||||||||||||
a short.distance beyond the turnoff.road | |||||||||||||||
a short distance past the turnoff road |
b. | Sy is 'n bietjie langer as hy. | ||||||||||||||
she be.PRS a little taller PTCL.SIMT him | |||||||||||||||
She is a little taller than him. |
Modifiers such as diep deep, ver far and lank long are characteristically used as amplifiers, that is, they emphasise the high degree of the distance between two points or intervals. Some example are given below.
die spits dak wat ver bo die vrugteboorde uitsteek |
the steep roof that.REL far above the fruit.orchards out.juts |
the steep roof which juts out high above the orchards |
beide hande diep in die sakke van sy reënjas |
both hands deep in the pockets of his raincoat |
both hands (buried) deep in the pockets of his raincoat |
The following examples make it clear that the adjectival modifier may be expanded by putting it in the equative degree. The equative adjective phrase is bracketed in each case:
Julle is nou nog [net so ver] as twee jaar gelede. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
you be.PRS now still [just PTCL.SIMT far] PTCL.SIMT two years ago | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
You are now still just as far as two years ago. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Ons is [ewe diep] in die gemors. |
we be.PRS equally deep in the mess |
We are equally deep in the mess. |
The adjectival modifier may also appear in the comparative degree:
Hoe verder in die somer, hoe langer die dae. |
how further in the summer how longer the days |
The further in summer, the longer the days. |
Adverbs as modifiers come in four kinds, namely i) quantificational modifiers, ii) low degree modifiers, iii) exact modifiers, and iv) orientational modifiers.
Quantificational discourse modifiers include presies, reg precisely, right, al all, or weer again, all of which refer to the discourse context. Some examples are given below.
Jesus het reg voor die skatkis gaan sit. |
Jesus have.AUX right before the treasure.chest go sit |
Jesus sat down right in front of the temple treasury. |
al langs die wit muur van die gebou | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
all along the white wall of the building | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
all along the white wall of the building | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Second, there are modifiers such as naby close, midde in in the middle of and te midde van among, amidst which are particular to PPs, more specifically to temporal or spatial PPs. They denote a relatively low degree of distance between two points. Examples are given below.
a. | [naby] aan die kerk | ||||||||||||||
close to the church |
b. | Hulle is midde in 'n groot gemors. | ||||||||||||||
they be.PRS mid in a big mess | |||||||||||||||
They are in the middle of a big mess. |
c. | te midde van al sy werk | ||||||||||||||
to midst of all his work | |||||||||||||||
amidst all his work |
The third type includes relatively precise interval modifiers like halfpad halfway and ten volle fully, completely, as exemplified below.
a. | 'n oondbak wat halfpad met water gevul is | ||||||||||||||
an oven.dish that.REL halfway with water fill.PASS be.AUX.PASS.PST | |||||||||||||||
an oven dish filled halfway with water |
b. | Ek vertrou ten volle op hom. | ||||||||||||||
I trust at fully on him | |||||||||||||||
I trust him completely. |
The fourth type refers more specifically to spatial orientation such as links left and regs right.
a. | links van die gruispad na Perdeberg | ||||||||||||||
left of the gravel.road to Perdeberg | |||||||||||||||
left of the dirt road to Perdeberg |
b. | Dit lê regs onder die diafragma. | ||||||||||||||
it lies right under the diaphragm | |||||||||||||||
It is situated on the right below the diaphragm. |
Bare adpositions may be used to modify spatial PPs. They include modifiers derived from prepositions, such as agter to the back, and voor in the front. Adpositional modifiers combine with other prepositions to specify their spatial meaning.
a. | agter in die yskas | ||||||||||||||
behind in the fridge | |||||||||||||||
in the back part of the fridge |
b. | onder in die sak | ||||||||||||||
below in the bag | |||||||||||||||
in the bottom part of the bag |
c. | regs onder op die bladsy | ||||||||||||||
right below on the page | |||||||||||||||
in the bottom part of the page on the right |
Temporal PPs tend to be modified by adjectives, as in the following examples:
a. | vroeg in die herfs | ||||||||||||||
early in the autumn | |||||||||||||||
early in autumn |
b. | laat in die lente | ||||||||||||||
late in the spring | |||||||||||||||
late in spring |
