
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Reflexive pronouns are pronouns that are inherently anaphoric to the subject of the sentence. Ponelis (1979:86) and De Stadler (1989:414) both regard this as a specialised use of the object form of personal pronouns, rather than a separate category of pronouns. However, this technically only holds true for the reflexive pronouns that correspond to the object form of pronouns, such as (1a-b). Reflexive pronouns can also take on an extended form with -self added at the end, illustrated in (1c-d).
a. | Jy mag jou assosieer met wie jy ookal wil. | ||||||||||||||
you.SG may.AUX.MOD you.SG associate with whom you.SG also.all want | |||||||||||||||
You may associate with whomever you want to. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Saam kan ons ons beywer om meer vir ons professie te bereik. | ||||||||||||||
together can.AUX.MOD we us motivate for.COMP more for our profession PTCL.INF achieve.INF | |||||||||||||||
Together we can motivate ourselves to achieve more for our profession. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
c. | Jy moet jouself kan identifiseer wanneer jy die kaart kom afhaal. | ||||||||||||||
you.SG must.AUX.MOD yourself can.AUX.MOD identify when you.SG the card come fetch | |||||||||||||||
You must be able to identify yourself when you fetch the card. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Maar ons moet onsself nie flous nie. | ||||||||||||||
but we must.AUX.MOD ourselves not fool PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
But we should not fool ourselves. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
The use of reflexive pronouns with -self is not uncontroversial. Adding -self for emphasis, or in cases that could be ambiguous, is always accepted. However, adding -self to reflexively used pronouns in any other case is often strongly proscribed, as the pattern is attributed to English influence (Ponelis 1979:83, 88). In terms of real language use, speakers often do add -self when it is technically not necessary for emphasis or disambiguation, as can be seen in examples (2b), (3b) and others below.
Similar to personal pronouns in general, reflexive pronouns can also be distinguished according to person, number, and sometimes gender. For first person singular, the object form my me is used (2a) as well as the extended form myself myself (2b). For the first person plural, ons us (2c) and onsself ourselves (2d) are used. Different from English where there are separate forms for singular and plural, in Afrikaans the added -self is used for both. However, there are alternative forms, used infrequently and often (though not always) informally, such as onsselwe (2e), but these do not correspond to specific person or number references.
a. | Ek het my beseer op die datum... | ||||||||||||||
I have.AUX me hurt on the date | |||||||||||||||
I hurt myself on this date... | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Ek kan myself twee meer verskillendes nie voorstel nie. | ||||||||||||||
I can.AUX.MOD myself two more differents not imagine PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
I cannot imagine for myself two that are more different. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Ons bibber van die koue en ongemak, maar ons wil ons dood lag. | ||||||||||||||
we shiver of the cold and discomfort but we want us dead laugh | |||||||||||||||
We shiver from the cold and discomfort, but we want to laugh ourselves to death. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Ons mag nie onsself in die voet skiet deur soos diegene te word teen wie ons "veg" nie. | ||||||||||||||
we may.AUX.MOD not ourselves in the foot shoot by like those to become against whom we fight PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
We must not shoot ourselves in the foot by becoming like those against whom we fight. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
e. | Derhalwe het ons andere lief na die mate waarin ons onsselwe liefhet. | ||||||||||||||
therefore have.PRS we others love to the extent REL.in we ourselves love.have | |||||||||||||||
Therefore we love others to the extent that we love ourselves. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
In terms of second person singular, the same principle applies: the object form jou you.SG can be used reflexively (3a), as well as jouself yourself (3b). The second person plural takes julle you.PL (3c) and julleself yourselves (3d), as well as the shortened form jul (3e) and julself (3f). The honorific second person u you.HON (3g) and uself yourself/yourselves.HON (3h) are used similarly.
a. | Jy sal jou beslis blind soek. | ||||||||||||||
you.SG will.AUX.MOD you.SG definitely blind search | |||||||||||||||
You will search yourself blind. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Stel jouself oop vir ander kulture, ander weergawes van die geskiedenis, nuwe verhoudings, en toets die grense van jou denke en jou optrede. | ||||||||||||||
set yourself open for other cultures other versions of the history new relationships and test the boundaries of your.SG thoughts and your.SG actions | |||||||||||||||
Open yourself up for other cultures, other versions of history, new relationships, and test the boundaries of your thoughts and your actions. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
c. | Ons wil hê dat julle julle verder sal bekwaam om vordering te maak. | ||||||||||||||
we want.to.AUX.MOD have.INF that.COMP you.PL you.PL further will qualify for.COMP progress PTCL.INF make.INF | |||||||||||||||
We want you to qualify yourselves further in order to make progress. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Nou bevind julle julleself in 'n sekere vryheid van denke. | ||||||||||||||
now find you.PL yourselves in a certain freedom of thoughts | |||||||||||||||
Now you find yourselves in a certain freedom of thought. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
e. | Net soos julle nou is en net soos julle jul nou gedra, was dit ook reeds lank gelede die geval. | ||||||||||||||
just like you.PL now be.PRS and just like you.PL you.PL now behave be.PST it also already long ago the case | |||||||||||||||
Just like you are now and just like you behave yourselves now, it's been like that for a long time. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
f. | Kan julle julself in hierdie mense se hartseer en verdriet indink? | ||||||||||||||
can.AUX.MOD you.PL yourselves in these people PTCL.GEN sadness and grief in.think | |||||||||||||||
Can you imagine these people's sadness and grief for yourselves? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
g. | Die vraag is: waarmee gaan u u vandag besig hou? | ||||||||||||||
the question be.PRS REL.with go you.HON you.HON today busy keep | |||||||||||||||
The question is: with what will you keep yourself busy today? | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
h. | U moet uself verder laat oplei. | ||||||||||||||
you.HON must.AUX.MOD yourself.HON further let train | |||||||||||||||
You should let yourself be trained further. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
As with personal pronouns, the third person singular distinguishes between female and male gendered forms. The female form haar her is used reflexively (4a), as well as the extended form haarself herself (4b). The male forms function according to the same principles, with hom him (4c) and homself himself (4d). Furthermore, the plural manifests as hulle them (4e) and hulleself themselves (4f), and as the shortened forms hul (4g) and hulself (4h).
a. | Sy gaan haar nie laat doodpraat nie. | ||||||||||||||
she will.AUX her not let dead.talk PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
She will not let herself be talked over. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Sy wou haarself knyp om seker te maak sy is rêrig in Rome. | ||||||||||||||
she want.to.AUX.MOD.PRT herself pinch for.COMP sure PTCL.INF make.INF she be.PRS really in Rome | |||||||||||||||
She wanted to pinch herself to ensure that she is really in Rome. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
c. | Hy sal hom nie so maklik laat vang nie. | ||||||||||||||
he will.AUX.MOD him not so easily let catch PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
He will not let himself be caught so easily. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | Dit is egter in die genre van die speurroman waar Deon Meyer werklik homself telkens oortref. | ||||||||||||||
it be.PRS however in the genre of the detect.novel where Deon Meyer really himself each.time outdo | |||||||||||||||
It is, however, in the genre of detective novel where Deon Meyer really oudoes himself every time. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
e. | Maar beide gedra hulle hier slegs maar so omdat hulle hulle so móét gedra. | ||||||||||||||
but both behave them here only but so because they them so must.AUX behave | |||||||||||||||
But both behave like this here because they have to behave themselves like this. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
f. | Maar daarin sal hulle hulleself erg vergis! | ||||||||||||||
but PN.in will.AUX.MOD they themselves badly mistake | |||||||||||||||
But in that they will be badly mistaken! | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
g. | Hulle moet hul nie deur mooi woorde laat verblind nie. | ||||||||||||||
they must.AUX.MOD them not by beautiful words let blind PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
They should not let themselves be blinded by beautiful words. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
h. | Lesers moet hulself afvra watter vlak by hulle pas. | ||||||||||||||
readers must.AUX.MOD themselves ask what level with them suit | |||||||||||||||
Readers should ask themselves what level suits them. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
The third person has one unique reflexive pronoun, a pronoun that is inherently reflexive, sig it (5a) and sigself itself (5b). The form is used infrequently, as it is fairly archaic, except for the fixed expression PPop sigself in itself (see Further uses of -self). As an alternative for inanimate reflexive use, the male form can be used. Another form that is not formally recognised, and only infrequently used, is with the third person inanimate personal pronoun as ditself itself, illustrated in (5c-d).
a. | 'n Lotslyn waarlangs die menslike geskiedenis evolueer en sig nooit herhaal nie. | ||||||||||||||
a Lot.line REL.along the human history evolve and it never repeat PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
A Lot line along which human history evolves and never repeats itself. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO, adapted |
b. | 'n Gedig skryf sigself: 'n metafoor vir die woordreisiger. | ||||||||||||||
a poem write itself a metaphor for the word.traveler | |||||||||||||||
A poem writes itself: a metaphor for the word traveler. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Ja, die fliek hou ditself besig met Oedipus Rex. | ||||||||||||||
yes the movie keep itself busy with Oedipus Rex | |||||||||||||||
Yes, the movie keeps itself busy with Oedipus Rex. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
d. | 'n Oop, wetenskaplike benadering verreken alle invalshoeke / interpretasies en verantwoord ditself ten opsigte daarvan. | ||||||||||||||
a open scientific approach account all angles / interpretations and account itself with regard PN.to | |||||||||||||||
An open, scientific approach accounts for all angles / interpretations, and keeps itself accountable in that regard. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
A few more examples of different reflexive pronouns with alternative forms, primarily -selwe and -selwers, are illustrated in (6).
a. | Hulle weet nie hoe om hulleselwe te bewoon nie. | ||||||||||||||
they know not how for.COMP themselves to occupy PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
They do not know how to occupy themselves. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Kom verlustig jou en vind jouselwers in poësie uit die boonste rakke! | ||||||||||||||
come delight you.SG and find yourself in poetry out the top shelves | |||||||||||||||
Come and delight yourself and find yourself in top poetry. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
c. | Nou toe, ek het genoeg gehad van julle vir een dag, verwyder julleselwers voor my aangesig. | ||||||||||||||
now then I have.AUX enough had of you.PL for one day remove yourselves from my face | |||||||||||||||
Now then, I have had enough of you for one day, remove yourselves from my presence. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
- De Stadler, L.G1989Afrikaanse semantiek.Southern Boekuitgewers
- Ponelis, Frits A1979Afrikaanse sintaksisPretoriaJ.L. van Schaik
- Ponelis, Frits A1979Afrikaanse sintaksisPretoriaJ.L. van Schaik
