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    Conversion
    quickinfo

    Conversion (also called transposition, functional shift, zero derivation or zero affixation; also note the terms double duty(Dixon 2014) and naked word(Jespersen 1942)) is a directional process, linking an input and an output form that are formally but not semantically identical (Bauer, Lieber and Plag 2013:545; Booij 2002: 134-136; Don 1993). Many researchers see conversion as a special case of derivation, but without (visible) affixation or any phonological or orthographical changes; hence, the term zero affixation is often used as a synonym for conversion (e.g. Marchand 1969:359 ff; cf. also Smessaert 2013:Ch. 6).

    extra

    A completely different position is taken in De Belder (2011). Working within the Exo-Skeletal variant of the Distributed Morphology framework (Halle 1993; Borer 2003), she maintains that lexical items have no syntactic category in the lexicon and only get one after being inserted into syntactic structure.

    In Afrikaans, conversion is rather common and wide-spread, although seemingly less productive (or at least restricted differently) than in English and Dutch. Kempen (1969:31) argues that noun-to-verb (i.e. verbalisation) and adjective/adverb-to-adverb/adjective conversion are the most productive types of conversion in Afrikaans. However, Theron (1974) shows that verb-to-noun conversion (i.e. nominalisation) is actually the most common form of conversion in Afrikaans, directly in contrast to what has been argued for English (e.g. Biese 1941) and Dutch (e.g. Booij 2002). Theron (1974:177) concludes that roughly 60% of nouns and verbs are used equally as nouns and verbs inversely, while 20% are used primarily as nouns only, and 20% primarily only as verbs. For those 60% of cases, it is almost impossible to determine primary usage based on synchronic grounds.

    Although words in almost any part-of-speech category can in theory be used in another category (e.g. in jest, as contortions, due to a lack of knowledge, etc.), the most common cases in Afrikaans are within the open word-classes. These, together with a few other common cases, include:

    Table 1
    Input category Output category Output example
    Proper noun Verb google to google
    Proper noun Interjection Jeremia! Jeremiah!
    Verb Noun swem swimming
    Verb (Participle) Adjective/Adverb gebreek broken
    Noun Verb hamer to hammer (on something)
    Noun Adjective/Adverb suur sour
    Noun Adjective/Adverb blikners saddle-sore
    Noun Interjection bliksem! dammit!
    Numeral Noun/Adjective twee two
    Adjective/Adverb Adverb/Adjective maklik easy/easily
    Adjective Noun mondeling oral (exam)
    Adjective Verb gehoorsaam obey
    Preposition Adverb langs next to
    Preposition Noun buite < buite+kant (the) outside
    Numeral as adjective Numeral as noun twee two
    Interjection Noun eina wound
    Interjection Adjective eina scanty
    Interjection Verb poef to pooh

    Details of the different types of conversion are discussed in the following topics:

    extra

    Original research on conversion in Afrikaans was mainly published in Kempen (1969), and in the PhD thesis of Theron (1974) that was conducted under Kempen's supervision. The remainder of this topic and its subtopics are based by and large on Theron's thesis.

    Kempen (1969:31) argues that there is substantial overlap between Afrikaans and Dutch conversion, contrary to the claims of Hesseling (1923). However, (corpus-based) research should still be conducted to shed more light on the issue.

    readmore
    [+]Modelling conversion

    There is no lack of theories on morphological conversion (Bauer, Lieber and Plag 2013:563 ff). Some of the oldest theories used the concept of zero affixation, i.e. the postulation of an affix without phonological content that is responsible for the change in category and meaning. Marchand (1969:359 ff) gives an historical foundation for zero derivation: Following Jespersen, he suggests that the loss of endings gave rise to derivation by a zero morpheme. Synchronically, however, there are various problems with the approach: It is impossible to decide whether it is a zero prefix or a zero suffix, zeroes tend to proliferate (one for deverbal nouns of common gender, another one for neuter nouns, one for denominal verbs, one for de-adjectival verbs, etc.), and it is hard to imagine how language learners could ever learn to master the mechanisms.

    [+]Directionality

    • The direction of conversion is not always easy to decide. This is especially true for noun-verb pairs, adjectives-adverb pairs, and preposition-adverb pairs in Afrikaans.
    • One way to determine the direction of conversion, is to consider it diachronically: Which function did the word have first?
      • The proper noun Google existed before the converted verb google. This is therefore a clear example of verbalising (or N-to-V) conversion.
      • With regard to an N-V pair like wals waltz and (om te) wals (to) waltz, one can consider the etymology of the word. Wijk (1936 [1912]) shows that the High German noun walzer waltz was derived from the verb walzen to turn, roll, and we can therefore conclude that – diachronically speaking – the noun was converted from the verb.
    • Another way to determine the direction of conversion, is to consider it synchronically: Which function does the word have primarily?
      • Primacy can be determined in various ways, including distribution, (perceived) frequency, prominence, definitional properties, etc.
      • From a corpus investigation it is clear that the verb teks to text occurs much less frequent than its noun counterpart. Since this verbal function is a new development, one can safely assume that the noun was converted into a verb.
      • In the case of a very old word like vinnig quick(ly); fast(ly) one should tread carefully, since vinnig is used more frequently as an adverb than as an adjective. Despite the fact that vinnig originated as an adjective, it is now used more frequently as an adverb. In such a case the adverbial use is primary, but the conversion was still from ADJ to ADV.
      • One could ask users to define a word pair, and the function that is used in the definition of one of the words, could be considered the primary function. For example, one could ask users in a questionnaire to define the verb and noun dokter doctor. If most users define the verb as to act like a doctor, then the nominal function is primary.
      • Similarly, one could consider definitions in dictionaries. For example, WAT defines the verb ploeg plough as to cultivate land with a plough, with a cross-reference to the noun ploeg plough. We can then deduct that the directionality of the conversion is from N to V.
      • Oftentimes, dictionaries use primacy as an ordering principle for the sequence in which functions and polysemous meanings are presented. For example, WAT presents the nominal function under the lemma haak (to) hook first, followed by the verbal function, but vice versa under the lemma kap (to) cut. One could then deduce N-to-V conversion in then case of haak, and V-to-N conversion in the case of kap.
      • Kempen (1969:37-38, 40) also illustrates that the number of polysemous meanings for the different functions of a word could serve as an indication of the primary function. For example, in WAT the noun baan lane; circuit; etc. has 19 polysemous meanings, while the verb has only two. From this we can deduce that the noun is primary, and hence that the verb was formed through N-to-V conversion.

    extra

    For lengthy discussions of tests for directionality, see De Groot (1962:133-136) and Kempen (1969:Ch. 1).

    [+]Subcategory conversion

    The notion conversion might be extended to cases where there is no change in category, but in subcategory. For instance, it is often possible to use a causative verb formed by means of the causative affixes ver- or -iseer as an intransitive verb as well:

    1
    a. ... dis die ouderdom wat dit so ver·geel het.
    ... it.is the age that it so VBZ·yellow have
    ... it's old age that yellowed it so.
    VivA-KP
    b. Die blaar ver·geel eers voor hy val.
    the leaf VBZ·yellow first before he fall
    The leaf yellows before it falls.
    VivA-KP
    2
    a. ... ek moet haar vinnig in die hospitaal kry waar ek haar kan stabil·iseer.
    ... I must her quick in the hospital get where I her can stable·VBZ
    ... I should get her quickly to hospital where I can stabilise her.
    VivA-KP
    b. ... die MIV-pandemie in Namibië besig is om te stabil·iseer ...
    ... the HIV pandemic in Namibia busy is PTCL.INF to stable·VBZ ...
    ... the HIV pandemic in Namibia is stabilising ...
    VivA-KP

    Another type of category-internal valency change is the formation of middle verbs on the basis of verbs that occur with an object or a prepositional adjunct that denotes an instrument, a location, or an external circumstance:

    3
    a. Hy behoort die merker+groep daagliks te weeg om hul groei te monitor.
    he should the marker+group daily to weigh PTCL.INF their growth to monitor
    He should weigh the marker group daily to monitor their growth
    VivA-KP
    b. ... Charlie se seuntjie, hy weeg nou 575 g op 4 maande.
    ... Charlie PTCL.GEN son, he weigh now 575 g on 4 months
    ... Charlie's son, at 4 months he now weighs 575 g.
    VivA-KP
    4
    a. ... die sommelier laat proe ons wyne van Frankryk ...
    ... the sommelier let taste us wines from France ...
    ... the sommelier let us taste wines from France ...
    VivA-KP
    b. ... die appels proe net soos die toffie-appels ...
    ... the apples taste just like the toffee-apples ...
    ... the apples taste just like the toffee apples ...
    VivA-KP

    As argued in Booij (1992) and Ackema and Schoorlemmer (1994;1995), this intransitive use of verbs cannot be a matter of syntax, but requires a lexical rule that applies to the lexical conceptual structure of verbs that express an action: the resulting middle verbs do not express an action, but a property. These middle verbs usually require some evaluative expression to be present in the clause in which they occur that specifies how well the subject can be involved in the event.

    [+]Theron's (1974) word lists

    The three tables below have been reproduced from Theron's (1974) thesis.

    Words functioning primarily as verbs, and secondarily as nouns:

    Table 2
    aai aanbou aandring aanhoor aanhou
    aankom aankweek aanmaak aanneem aanpak
    aanplant aanraai aansit aanskou aanslaan
    aanvoer aanwys aarsel afdruip afdrup
    afhang afhou afkantel afkom afoes
    afreis afry afsit afskrik afsterwe
    afstryk afvloei afvoer afweer ag (‘respekteer’)
    agterbly agteroorgooi asemhaal baasraak baat
    bagger baljaar ban bangmaak bedaar
    bederf beding behoort bekyk bereik
    besit bestel bestier betoog betoon
    beur bevind bladlees bleik blindtik
    bloei blus boekstaaf boemel boet
    boks borduur bot bots bou
    braak brabbel brandverf bras brou
    byboek byteken deurdruk deurkyk deursny
    deurstoot deurtrek deurvlug deurvoer dig (‘skryf’)
    dink dobber doem doen doesel
    dog dommel doodgaan doodsê doodverf
    dooi dos draf dril drink
    druk dut dwaal dwarrel eet
    faal feil fietsry flous fluister
    gaan galm galop gebeur gekskeer
    gelukwens gelykstaan gis glim glinster
    glip gluur gly gooi grim
    groei grou (‘grawe’) gryp hardloop heengaan
    heers heg hekel help herstel
    hoor hou huil insien intrap
    intree intrek jubel kaap kant
    kap karwei keur klim klink
    kluister knel knikker knipper koop
    kophou korswel lê leeglê leen
    leer (‘studeer’) lees (i.v.m. boeke) lekkerkry liplees loer
    moker mooipraat naloop namaak neerhaal
    omkoop omruil onderhuur onderspit oordek
    oorhaal oorsteek (‘verder gaan’) ophaal oploop oppas
    opsien opskep opsmuk opstaan paalspring
    pamperlang pleit praat pronk prut
    raas ratel rondreis rou ruik
    ry ryloop saamwerk sak (‘afbeweeg’) sanik
    sê seur sier sing sink
    sit skerts skiet skif skik
    skommel skoolhou skoor skors skraag
    skrap slag (bv. van diere) slenter sleur sloof
    sluimer smaad smokkel smul spat
    spot spring sprinkel staan staar
    steel steur stry stryk suip
    sukkel swier tas teel teem
    tooi toon trop uitgaan uithaal
    uitkoop uitkyk uitstap uitstryk uitvra
    uitwas vat vee verbygaan verdedig
    vergiet verhuis verkoop verskiet verwyl
    vleg vra walg wan wandel
    wantrou was weergalm wei woeker
    wraak wyk yl

    Words functioning primarily as nouns, and secondarily as verbs:

    Table 3
    aanskyn akker akkoord amateur ambag
    angs baard balein ballas bandiet
    barbier batik bed bek belang
    beraad besem beswaar beul blaar
    bloed blousel bobbejaan boeg boepens
    bolwerk bom boodskap boog boom
    bos bout broek bruilof buffer
    buik bullebak bus byval Craven
    dagga dak das dassie dief
    dons doring draad duiwel eelt
    eiland fabel fabriek fiets foelie
    front galg gas gasie gebaar
    gerief gevoel gier glas glorie
    gordel goud graan grasduin grein
    grens griffel groep hoer hotnot
    huis jeremiade jood kampioen kanon
    kantoor kap (‘hoofbedekking’) kapater kapoen kastrol
    katel keel keper kerk kerker
    ketting kiek kiel kiem kierie
    klavier klawer kleed klei klier
    klomp kluis kneg knip knuppel
    koeël koei koekepan koelie koepel
    koerant koffie kok kol kondukteur
    konfyt konsertina konsistorie kontoer koring
    kos kraal kram krans kruiwa
    kruk kryg kuil kuip kwaal
    laer lamp lans leer lem
    leraar letter likkewaan luik luilak
    lumier lummel maal mag mangel
    masker meer (‘see’) middag mishoop modder
    mot motor myl myn naald
    naam nadruk neger nek nes
    neus nut onderwys operasie orakel
    orkes orrel paap pakkaas paljas
    pand pantoffel papegaai parmant peer
    pel pen penseel peperment petrol
    pit plaag plak pluim pluimpie
    polka poot pot pram pyp
    raaisel ram rantsoen rede rentenier
    res ridder ring roof rusie
    rysmier saal sabel saksofoon sambok
    seksie senter sirkus skandmerk skandvlek
    skêr skobbejak skottel skouer slaaf
    slaai slang slee sloot sluier
    smart snip snit snoeker sop
    spier spies spioen spys staat
    stofreën storie stortreën straat string
    stronk stronk stroois strop stukadoor
    sukkel sussie sweem sweep syfer (‘getal’)
    tafel tafsy tand tapyt tee
    teiken titel toeval tokkelok tonnel
    toorn trebbel trem trompet tuinier
    tweeling vakansie verdriet veter vier
    vilt vis vleg vlei vloer
    vlooi voering voor (‘sloot’) vraag vuis
    waaier waan werwel wiel wingerd
    winkel wolk wraak wrok

    Words functioning equally as verbs and nouns:

    Table 4
    aanbelang aanblik aangee aangroei aanhef
    aankoop aanloop aanroep aansien aanstoot
    aanteel aanval aanvang aanwas aar
    aard aas abba ablou adel
    adem afdruk afgaan afjak aflaat
    aflos afset afskop afslaan afstel
    aftrek afval agterklap agterlap amok
    angel anker antwoord argwaan asem
    asgaai B.T.K. baai baal baan
    bad bak baken baklei bal
    ballet balsem bank banvloek bars
    bas baster basuin bedryf beeld
    begin behae beheer beitel beits
    bel beleg belet beloop berig
    beroep berou besef besluit besoek
    bestaan bestuur bewys bieg biljart
    binneloods binnetrap binneval blaas blaf
    blaker blêr blik bliksem blinddoek
    blits blok blom blyk bobbel
    boei boek boekhou boer bof
    boggel boikot bok bol bolster
    bondel bons boor borg borrel
    borsel bottel botter brand brandmerk
    brandskilder breidel brekfis briek bril
    brom brons brug brul bry
    buit bulk bult bundel bysit
    byslaap byt chaperone dam damp
    dank dans deel dek deug
    deurlaat deurloop deurreis dip doel
    doepa dok dokter donder donker
    dood doodskop doodsteek doodsweet doodvat
    doop dop dou draai dreun
    drom droom drup druppel dubbelvou
    duik duur dwarsboom dy eb
    eer eg eggo eis end
    ent erd erf ets etter
    ewenaar fees film finansier flap
    flenter flerrie fliek flikker flikkervlam
    flirt flits fluit fokus fonkel
    foon frommel frons fuif fynkam
    gaap gaffel gebruik geld geloof
    geluk gesel gespe geur geval
    ghries ghrop gil glans glasuur
    glimlag gluuroog golf gom gorrel
    graaf grap grendel grief gril
    grimlag groef groet grom grond
    grondverf gruis gryns grynslag gulp
    haak haal haar haas haat
    hael hak hamer handel hang
    hap hark harnas harpoen harpuis
    hef heks hendikep her herberg
    herdruk hewel hobbel hoepel hoes
    hok hooi hoon hoop (‘bondel’) hoop (‘verwag’)
    houvas huur indruk inkoop inlas
    inry inval invoer jag jeuk
    kaart kabbel kabel kalf kam
    kamp kanker kapittel kapok karring
    kartel kas katrol kats keep
    keer kef kelder kelk kenmerk
    kenskets kerf ketter kim kinkel
    kis klad klamp klank klap
    klas klem klets kleur kliek
    klik klits kloek klok klont
    kloof klop klou kluif knak
    kneus kniehalter knik knip knoop
    knop knop knor knor knou
    knyp koek koers kolf kolk
    kontak kop koppel korrel kors
    koukus kraai kraak krap kriek
    kring krinkel kronkel kroon krop
    kruie kruis krul krummel kug
    kuier kurk kus kwesel kwyl
    kyk laagvat lag lak land
    lanterfanter lap las laster laventel
    lawaai lek (‘lekplek’) lek (‘leksel’) lepel lewe
    loer loods loog loon loop
    lug lui lym lyn lys
    manikuur mars melk merk mik
    mis misbruik mond monster mud
    muilband munt nael nerf nommer
    noodsaak oes offer olie omhaal
    omkoop omloop omswaai omvang onderrig
    ondersoek ontbyt onthaal ontstaan ontwerp
    oordruk oorloop oorstaan oorval opbou
    ophef oproep opstel paar pag
    pak pantser pas peil pêrel
    pes peul piekniek piep pik
    pil plaas plant plas plasreën
    pleister plesier ploeg plof plons
    plooi poeier politoer pols pomp
    pond pons pootjie pos praal
    preek priem prikkel proef prop
    prys pulwer punt put pyl
    pyn raam rafel rand rank
    ransel raps rasper redetwis reël
    reën reis rek rem rep
    riffel rimpel roem roep roer
    roes roesemoes roffel rofkas roggel
    rol rook room rooster roskam
    ruil ruk rumoer rus rym
    ryp rys saag saamtrek salf
    salpeter saluut seel seën seep
    seil sein sens sensor set
    setel sif sirkel skaaf skaak
    skaar skaats skakel skarnier skat
    skaterlag skemer skep skerm skets
    skeur ski skil skilder skilfer
    skimp skipper skoffel skok skollie
    skool skoonmaak skoonvang skop skou
    skree skreeu skroef skroom skrum
    skrywe skuif skuim skuld skulp
    skut skyn slaap slampamper slinger
    slof sloop sluk slurp smaak
    smeer smous snaar snater sneeu
    snik snipper snoer snuit sny
    soen sool soom sorg sous
    spaander spalk span speen speld
    spieël spikkel spit spits splinter
    spoed spoeg spoel spons spook
    spoor sprei sproei spruit spuit
    spyker staal stal stam stamp
    stap stapel steek steier stel
    stem stempel steun stippel stoel
    stof stoof stoom stoot stop
    storm stort straal strand streep
    striem strik stroom stut stuur
    stysel sug suiker swaai swael
    sweer sweet swenk swerm takel
    tamboer teël teenstem teer teken
    tender tennis terugval tik tingel
    tint tip tjap toeloop toer
    toeter toets toevoer tol tolk
    top toring traan trap tree
    trek troef trok trommel trompetter
    troon troos tros tug tuit
    twis twyfel uitbraak uitlaat uitloop
    uitroep uitstel uitval uitverkoop uitvoer
    val vastrap veer verbruik verderf
    verf vergelyk vergryp verhaal verhoog
    verkeer verloop vermaak vernis verset
    verskil versoek versuim vertoon vertrek
    verval vervoer vervolg verweer verwyt
    veto vlam vlek vlieg vloek
    vlym voeg voer vonk vonnis
    voorgee voorloop voorstel voorval vorm
    vou vrees vul vurk vuur
    vyl waarborg waarmerk wag walm
    wals wanhoop wapen wasem water
    weerlig wenk wens werk wieg
    wil wip wissel wond wonder
    wortel ys ysskaats ywer

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    About this article
    Author(s): Gerhard B van Huyssteen
    Category: Afrikaans Morphology
    Keywords: derivationmorphological category change
    Version: 1.0, May 2020
    Version history:
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    1.0 Gerhard B van Huyssteen May 2020
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