
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Intransitive adpositions, or bare adpositions, do not take a complement, as in the case of prepositions, postpositions or circumpositions. Two types of intransitive adpositions can be distinguished, namely i) intransitive adpositions with an external argument, and ii) intransitive adpositions without an external argument (also see Pretorius 2017). Intransitive adpositions without an external argument are also commonly referred to as verbal particles.
The two sentences below illustrates the two distinguishable types of intransitive adpositions. In the first example, the adposition uit out take an external argument (namely the sentence subject die hond the dog), and in the second example, the adposition uit out, does not take an external argument:
Die hond is uit. |
the dog be.PRS out |
The dog went outside. |
Hulle lag jou uit. |
they laugh you out |
They are laughing at you. |
Intransitive adpositions have preposition counterparts, but could be said to lexicalise the nominal structure associated with the argument itself. An example of an intransitive adposition, contrasted by the preposition pendant, follows below.
a. | Die kinders slaap [onder] vanaand. | ||||||||||||||
the children sleep below tonight | |||||||||||||||
The children are sleeping downstairs tonight. |
b. | Die kinders slaap [onder die afdak]. | ||||||||||||||
the children sleep below the down.roof | |||||||||||||||
The children are sleeping below the lean-to. |
Two types of intransitive adpositions can be distinguished. First, there are adpositions with an external argument. They may be predicated from their external argument. In the sentence below, the sentence subject ek I is the external argument of the adposition buite.
a. | Ek is buite. | ||||||||||||||
I be.PRS outside | |||||||||||||||
You are outside. |
Intransitive adpositions with an external argument have meaning of their own. They need not be selected by the verb. The following example involves an adposition with an independent meaning. The adposition op up contains the meaning of 'to be depleted', and not the verb raak become.
Die melk raak op. |
the milk becomes up |
We are running out of milk. |
Second, there are intransitive adpositions without an external argument. They are selected by the verb (and also referred to as verbal particles), as exemplified below, with the adposition bracketed in each case.
a. | Hy tel die hamer [op]. | ||||||||||||||
he pick the hammer up | |||||||||||||||
He picks up the hammer. |
b. | Hulle lag jou [uit]. | ||||||||||||||
they laugh you out | |||||||||||||||
They are laughing at you |
There are no intransitive adpositions of which the meaning is determined by an adjective, a noun or a preposition.
Verbal particles may derive from nouns, adjectives and postpositions, and may be stranded at the end of the clause in verb-second position, which is mainly the case in main clauses, as is illustrated by the pair of examples below.
a. | Anton sluit die gesprek af. | ||||||||||||||
Anton close the conversation off | |||||||||||||||
Anton is concluding the conversation. |
b. | Anton wil die gesprek af+sluit. | ||||||||||||||
Anton want.to.AUX.MOD the conversation off.close | |||||||||||||||
Anton wants to conclude the conversation. |
Verbal particles may have an independent meaning, but their meaning usually depends on the verb which selects them, as is evident from the previous example.
The following intransitive spatial adpositions occur in Afrikaans, and an example of the usage of each is given in (6).
- binne inside
- buite outside
- bo above, upstairs
- onder below, downstairs
- agter behind, in the back
- voor front, in the front
a. | Willem werk binne. | ||||||||||||||
Willem work inside | |||||||||||||||
Willem is working inside. |
b. | Willem werk buite. | ||||||||||||||
Willem work outside | |||||||||||||||
Willem is working outside. |
c. | Willem werk bo. | ||||||||||||||
Willem work above. | |||||||||||||||
Willem is working upstairs. |
d. | Willem werk onder. | ||||||||||||||
Willem work below | |||||||||||||||
Willem is working downstairs. |
e. | Willem werk agter. | ||||||||||||||
Willem work behind | |||||||||||||||
Willem is working in the back. |
f. | Willem werk voor. | ||||||||||||||
Willem work front. | |||||||||||||||
Willem is working in the front. |
Some adpositions have two forms, depending on whether they appear as a preposition or as a postposition. Thus the preposition met with has the postposition pendant mee, and tot until appears in postposition form as toe. Note that mee and toe may occur as an intransitive adposition in verbal forms such as meewerk contribute or toespreek, as illustrated by the following examples.
a. | Hulle sal mee+werk om die ideaal te bereik. | ||||||||||||||
they will.AUX.MOD with+work for.COMP the ideal PTCL.INF achieve.INF | |||||||||||||||
They will contribute to achieve the ideal. |
b. | Hulle werk graag mee om die ideaal te bereik. | ||||||||||||||
they work gladly with for.COMP the ideal PTCL.INF achieve.INF | |||||||||||||||
They like to work together to achieve the ideal. |
a. | Hy sal more die joernaliste toe+spreek. | ||||||||||||||
he will tomorrow the journalist until+address | |||||||||||||||
He will.AUX.MOD be addressing the journalists tomorrow. |
b. | Hy spreek die joernaliste more toe. | ||||||||||||||
he address the journalists tomorrow until | |||||||||||||||
He will be addressing the journalist tomorrow. |
However, the form tot never appears as an intransitive adposition. This could support an argument that intransitive postpositions do not derive from prepositions but from transitive postpositions.
There are also intransitive adpositions that are not homophonous to either prepositions or postpositions. A case in point is the adposition weg away, gone. This can be used as an adposition with an external argument, as in example (8).
Hy is weg, maar ek weet nie waarheen nie. |
he be.PRS away but I know not where.to PTCL.NEG |
He is gone, but I don't know where. |
An example of this adposition without an external argument occurs in separable complex verbs with weg as a verbal particle:
a. | Faf moet altyd die bal weg+skop. | ||||||||||||||
Faf must.AUX.MOD always the ball away+kick | |||||||||||||||
Faf always has to kick away the ball. |
b. | Faf skop die bal altyd weg. | ||||||||||||||
Faf kick the ball always away | |||||||||||||||
Faf is always kicking the ball away. |
- Pretorius, E2017The secret nominal life of Afrikaans intransitive adpositions.Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics48
