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    Stress in prefixed words
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    In Frisian, we can distinguish between two groups of prefixes. The differences between these groups are given in the table below (based on Hoekstra (1998:63):

    Table 1
    Group A Group B
    stressed unstressed
    attaches to nouns and adjectives attaches to verbs
    modifying transposing/mutating
    Group A contains the majority of prefixes. Group B consists of ge-, be-, fer-, te-, ûnt-, mis-, and wjer-. The prefixes ûnt-, mis-, and wjer- have a full vowel, so they can bear stress, for which reason they can also be placed in Group A. Since their only vowel is schwa, be-, ge-, fer-, and te- cannot be stressed for independent reasons (see the Schwa restriction).

    More details about prefixation can be found in the introduction to prefixation.

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    [+]Prefixation of nouns

    Prefixes which combine with nouns and contain a full vowel attract primary stress. As to this, these derivations behave like nominal compounds and thus receive stress according to the Nominal Compound Stress Rule (see Stress in compounds with two constituents). There are four types of prefixes which combine with nouns; see the overview in (1), which is based on Hoekstra (1998:63-71)):

    1
    a. Prefixes that indicate a relationship
          oarre- [vwarə] oarreheit ['vwar.rə.ha jt] grandfather
          oer- [uər] oerpake ['uər.pa:.kə] great-grandfather
          bet- [bɛt] betoerpake ['bɛt.uər.pa:.kə] great-great-grandfather
          âld- [ɔ:t] âldomke ['ɔ:t.om.kə] great-uncle
          efter- [ɛftər] efterneef ['ɛf.tər.ne:f] first cousin once removed
          skoan- [skwan] skoanheit ['skwan.hajt] father-in-law
          foar- [fwar] foarbern ['fwar.bɛ:n] child by previous marriage
          heal- [jɛl] healbroer ['jɛl.bruər] half-brother
          pot- [pɔt] potsuster ['pɔt.søs.tər] stepsister
          kalf- [kɔlf] kalfsuster ['kɔlf.søs.tər] stepsister
          kâld- [kɔ:t] kâldsuster ['kɔ:t.søs.tər] stepsister
          styf- [stif] styfbern ['stiv.bɛ:n] stepchild
    b. Prefixes that indicate a status
          oer- [uər] oertiid ['uər.ti:t] prehistoric times
          oar- [o͜ər] oarsprong ['oər.sproŋ] origin
          aarts- [a:ts] aartsfader ['a:ts.fa:.dər] patriarch
          âld- [ɔ:t] âld-leksikograaf ['ɔ:t.lɛk.si.ko:.ɡra:f] former lexicographer
          eks- [ɛks] eks-ponghâlder ['ɛks.poŋ.hɔ:.dər] former banker
          ûnder- [undər] ûnderoffisier ['un.dər.ɔf.fi.siər] non-commissioned officer
          vice- [fizə] vice-presidint ['fi.zə.pre:.zi.dɪnt] vice president
          haad- [ha:t] haadkommissaris ['ha:t.kom.mə.sa:.rəs] chief
    c. Prefixes that indicate an opposite/negative meaning
          net- [nɛt] net-smoker ['nɛt.smo:.kər] non-smoker
          ûn- [un] ûnlân ['ũ.lɔ:n] unfruitful ground
          wan- [vɔn] wanferhâlding ['vɔ̃.fər.hɔ:.dɪŋ] disproportion
          mis- [mɪs] misbegryp ['mɪz.bə.ɡrip] misunderstanding
          rot- [rɔt] rotbaas ['rɔd.ba:s] miserable manager
          skyt- [skit] skytputsje ['skit.pøtsjə] easy job
          stront- [stront] strontfint ['stront.fɪnt] miserable guy [this prefix also occurs with adjectives]
    d. The prefix wjer-
          wjer- [vjɛr] wjerheak ['vjɛr.hɪək] barb
          wjer- [vjɛr] wjerstân ['vjɛr.stɔ:n] resistance
          wjer- [vjɛr] wjerwurd ['vjɛr.vøt] reply
    [+]Prefixation of adjectives

    Prefixations of adjectives with a full vowel-prefix have stress on the adjective, while the prefix bears extra prominence. In adjectival compounds, stress is also on the adjective (the second part), while the first part has extra prominence (see Hoekstra (1998:71) and also Stress in adjectival compounds). Adjectival prefixations and adjectival compounds thus have comparable stress patterns. Examples of adjectival prefixations are 'poerTSJUSTER very dark and 'ûnFRYSK contrary to what is supposed to be typically Frisian (capitals denote primary stress, ' denotes the extra prominence). In lexicalized prefixation stress can shift to the adjective (which is indicated by capitals): ûnDOGENS naughty, trochWIET soaking wet (see Hoekstra (1998:71)).

    There are four types of adjectival prefixes; see the overview in (2), which is based on Hoekstra (1998:71-79):

    2
    a. Normal intensifying prefixes
          troch- [trox] trochsiik [trox.'siik] thoroughly sick
          yn- [in] ynwyt [ĩ.'vit] deathly pale
          oer- [uər] oerryp [uər.'rip] overripe
          poer- [puər] poermin [puər.'mɪn] very bad
          witte- [vɪtə] witteâld [vɪt.tə.'ɔ:t] very old
          stront- [stront] strontlet [stront.'lɛt] very late
          alderbalder- [ɔldərbɔldər] alderbalderbêst [ɔl.dər.bɔl.dər.'bɛ:st] extremely good/well
    b. Other intensifying prefixes
          brân- [brɔ:n] brânskjin [brɔ̃:.'skjɪn] spotless
          fjoer- [fjuər] fjoerread [fjuər.'rɪəd] scarlet
          gleon- [ɡløən] gleonhyt [ɡløən.'hit] red-hot
          stapel- [sta:pəl] stapeldronken [sta:.pəl.'droŋ.kən] very drunk
          spier- [spiər] spierneaken [spiər.'nɪə.kən] stark naked
          stôk- [stɔ:k] stôkrjocht [stɔ:k.'rjoxt] dead straight
          stien- [stiən] stienkâld [stiəŋ.'kɔ:t] freezing
          smoar- [smoər] smoardrok [smoər.'drok] hectic
          dea- [dɪə] deawurch [dɪə.'vørx] dead tired
    c. Privative prefixes
          ûn- [un] ûntankber [un.'taŋɡ.bər] ungrateful
          wan- [vɔn] wangeunstich [vɔŋ.'ɡø̃:s.təx] envious
          a- [a:] akollegiaal [a:.kol.le:.ɣi.'ja:l] disloyal to one's colleagues
          yn- [in] ynkapabel [iŋ.ka.'pa:.bəl] incompetent
    d. Prefix eigen-
          eigen- [ajɣən] eigenboud [aj.ɣəm.'bɔwt] grown by oneself, home-grown
    [+]Prefixation of verbs

    In general, prefixes attached to verb stems do not carry stress. The prefixes concerned are ge-, be-, fer-, te-, ûnt-, mis-, and wjer-. An overview, taken from Hoekstra (1998:144-151), is given in (3):

    3
    be- [bə] bebuorkje [bə.'bwor.kjə] to run (of a farm)
    ge- [ɡə] gefjocht [ɡə.fjoxt] fight
    fer- [fər] ferbaare [fə.'ba:.nə] to burn
    te- [tə] tebrekke [tə.'brɛk.kə] break (in)to pieces
    ûnt- [unt] ûntkomme [unt.'kom.mə] to escape
    mis- [mɪs] misfoarmje [mɪs.'fwarm.jə] to deform
    wjer- [vjɛr] wjerhâlde [vjɛr.'hɔ:.də] to prevent

    Because it bears stress, the non-native prefix hyper-, as in hyperfentilearje ['hi.pər.fɛn.ti.ljɛr.jə] to hyperventilate, is an exception to this pattern; extra prominence is on the verb here.

    [+]Non-native prefixes

    Primary word stress is never on non-native prefixes. The latter can carry secondary stress if there is at least one intervening syllable between (the first syllable of) the prefix and the syllable with primary word stress. As to this, words with non-native prefixes behave like simplex words. These have secondary stress on their initial syllable, provided that the second syllable does not carry primary stress; adjacent stresses within a prosodic word are disallowed, the syllables concerned must be separated by at least one unstressed syllable (see the Alternating Stress Principle). Consider the following list of non-native prefixes:

    4
    apatysk [a.'pa:.tisk] apathetic
    adheezje [at.'he:z.jə] adhesion
    antysemyt [ˌan.ti.se:.'mit] anti-Semite
    apoteoaze [ˌa.po:.te:.'joə.zə] apotheosis
    konfetti [kõ.'fɛt.ti] confetti
    deteksje [de:.'tɛk.sjə] detection
    inklusyf [ˌiŋ.kly.'sif] inclusive
    yntermezzo [ˌin.tər.'mɛt.so:] intermezzo
    perforator [ˌpɛr.fo:.'ra:.tɔr] perforator
    prelude [pre:.'ly.də] prelude
    represje [re:.'prɛs.jə] repression
    transponearje [ˌtrans.po:.'njɛr.jə] to transpose

    Monosyllabic prefixes have secondary stress if the base word does not have initial stress, while polysyllabic prefixes with a stressable first syllable always have initial secondary stress. Consider, for instance, the word represje [re:.'prɛs.jə] repression, with the prefix re-. Since the prefix is followed by the main-stressed syllable of the word, it remains unstressed. This means that the vowel of the prefix can optionally reduce to schwa ( [rə.'prɛs.jə]), which is an indication that main stress directly follows the prefix. Vowel reduction, however, is impossible in a verb like representearje [ˌre:.pre:.sɪn.'tjɛr.jə] to represent. Since primary stress is not adjacent to the prefix here, secondary stress is assigned to the initial syllable ‒ it does not result in a stress clash ‒ so the vowel of the prefix cannot undergo reduction. As the phonological make-up of these prefixed words usually resembles that of simplex words, whereas their meaning is not transparently compositional, it is often questionable whether these prefixes still classify as such, or whether they rather form an undivided whole with the base word.

    [+]Nativized prefixes

    The main distinction between non-native and nativized prefixes lies in their combinability with native base words. While non-native prefixes cannot combine with native base words, nativized prefixes can; in fact, some of them can even occur as independent words. Examples of nativized prefixes are anty-, ko-, kontra-, des-, eks-, ynter-, meta-, non-, para-, pro-, semy-, sub-, super-, and ultra-. Words derived with prefixes which can also occur as an independent word, look very much like compounds. Notably, when combined with nouns, these prefixes always have primary stress; secondary stress is on the base word, even when this results in a stress clash. Consider the examples in (5):

    5
    antyheld ['an.ti.ˌhɛlt] antihero
    ko-produsint ['ko:.pro:.dy.ˌsɪnt] co-producer
    kontra-spionaazje ['kon.tra.spi.jo:.ˌna:z.jə] counterespionage
    desylluzje ['dɛz.i.ˌlyz.jə] disillusion
    eks-keizer ['ɛks.kaj.zər] ex-emperor
    ynternet ['in.tər.ˌnɛt] internet
    meta-taal ['me:.ta:.ˌta:l] metalanguage
    non-fiksje ['non.ˌfɪk.sjə] non-fiction
    semyprof ['se.mi.ˌprɔf] semi-pro
    subkategory ['søp.kat.tə.ɡoə.ˌri] subcategory
    supermacht ['sy.pər.ˌmaxt] superpower
    ultrasintrifúzje ['øl.tra:.sɪn.tri.ˌfy:z.jə] ultracentrifuge
    extra

    The words non-fiksje ['non.ˌfɪk.sjə] non-fiction, semyprof ['se.mi.ˌprɔf] semi-pro, and ultrasintrifúzje ['øl.tra:.sɪn.tri.ˌfy:z.jə] ultracentrifuge can also have primary stress on the base word and secondary stress on the first syllable: [ˌnon.'fɪk.sjə], [ˌse.mi.'prɔf], and [ˌøl.tra:.sɪn.tri.'fy:z.jə].

    When combined with adjectives, nativized prefixes do not bear primary stress. This is on the adjective, though only in predicative position. If the adjective is in attributive position, primary stress shifts leftwards onto the prefix. This was noted for Dutch by Langeweg (1988); it also holds for Frisian. See the examples in (6):

    6
    ynterkontinintaal [ˌin.tər.kon.ti.nɪn.'ta:l] intercontinental
    pro-Frysk [ˌpro:.'frisk] pro-Frisian
    paranormaal [ˌpa:.ra:.nɔr.'ma:l] paranormal
    paramedysk [ˌpa:.ra.'me:.disk] paramedical
    ultramodern [ˌøl.tra:.mo:.'dɛrn] very modern
    [+]The 'special' behavior of the prefix ûn- in combination with adjectives

    When combined with adjectives, the prefix ûn- shows a special behaviour (this also holds for the Dutch prefix on-: Van den Berg (1970), Schultink (1979), Booij (1995)): usually, ûn- is unstressed when the adjective is in predicative position (stress is realized on the stem), but it regularly receives stress when the adjective ends up in attributive position. See the examples in (7):

    7
    Dy fint is ûnaardich [un.'a:.dəx] That chap is unkind
    vs.
    dy ûnaardige fint ['un.a:.də.ɣə] that unkind chap

    In predicative position, however, stress can be realized on ûn-, in order to underline the negative meaning of the adjective as a whole. For Dutch on-, the same is noted by Booij (1995:123)). This is not possible with adjectives where the prefix has become semantically opaque:

    8
    Jan is ûnaardich ['un.a:.dəx] Jan is really unkind
    (focus on the negative meaning; the positive counterpart of ûnaardich is aardich ['a:.dəx] kind )
    vs
    *Jan is ûndogens [*'un.do:.ɣə̃s] Jan is naughty
    (the adjective ûndogens does not have the positive counterpart *dogens well-behaved, obedient )

    In case the negative adverb net not is added, the stress pattern of derivations with the prefix ûn- does not change. A possible explanation for this could be that net always has a rather high degree of prominence, so that shifting stress to the prefix would result in two adjacent stresses. See the example in (9):

    9
    Dat oanbod is net ûnaardich [un.'a:.dəx] That offer is not bad
    vs
    In net ûnaardich oanbod [un.'a:.dəx] [*'un.a:.dəx] A not so bad offer
    References
    • Berg, Boudewijn van den1970Het woordaccent van afleidingen met het prefix on-De Nieuwe TaalgidsVan Haeringen-issue1-15
    • Booij, Geert1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
    • Booij, Geert1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
    • Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Langeweg, S. J1988The stress system of DutchUniversity of LeidenThesis
    • Schultink, Henk1979Reacties op 'stress clash': de accentuering van samenstellende afleidingen, afleidingen van composita, en composita in het Nederlands: een eerste terreinverkenningSpektator8195-208
    About this article
    Author(s): Willem Visser, Joke Weening
    Category: Frisian Phonology
    Keywords: stresscomplex wordprefix
    Version: 1.0, December 2015
    Version history:
    version editor(s) date remarks
    1.0 Willem Visser, Joke Weening December 2015
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