
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Clause-final verb clusters are by non-verbal constituents such as copula predicates (e.g.(1a)), direct objects(e.g. (1b)), object complementives , verbal particles (e.g.(1c)) and adverbials (e.g. 1d)), otherwise precede or in some cases follow the verb cluster in the preferential ordering. When nominals permeate the cluster, they are restricted to generic or mass nouns (e.g. (1b)). In some instances permeation seems to depend on the weight of the particle or phrase. Adverbs permeate more easily than adverbial phrases, and adverbs of manner, time, etc. more easily than prepositional phrases. Note that in some instances, such as the verbal particle in (1c), the permeated form may be more common than its non-permeated counterpart.
a. | Die beton kan miskien môre [(VP) begin [(ADJ) droog] raak]. | ||||||||||||||
the concrete can.AUX.MOD perhaps tomorrow begin.LINK dry.ADJ become.PRS | |||||||||||||||
The concrete may perhaps dry out by tomorrow. |
b. | Julle sal later [(VP) moet [(NP) [(N) werk]] maak] daarvan. | ||||||||||||||
you.2PL will.AUX.MOD later.on must.AUX.MOD work make.INF PN.of | |||||||||||||||
You will have to make a point of it later on. |
c. | Sy gaan die oortreder [(VP) probeer [(V.PART)uit] wys]. | ||||||||||||||
she go.AUX.MOD the offender try.LINK out.point.INF | |||||||||||||||
She is going to try to point out the offender. |
d. | Die optog sal heeldag [(VP) bly [(ADV) stadig] beweeg]. | ||||||||||||||
the procession will.AUX.MOD all.day keep.on.LINK slowly move.INF | |||||||||||||||
The procession will keep moving slowly all day. |
Verb clusters are often by copula predicates, such as adjectives (2a), nominals (2b) and prepositional phrases (2c). The non-permeated variants in (2ai) and (2bi) are as common as the permeated variants, while the non-permeated variant in (2ci) represents the more common usage.
a. | Jy weet dat die werkstuk môre [(ADV) moet [(ADJ) klaar] wees]. |
you.2SG know.PRS that.COMP the assignment tomorrow must.AUX.MOD finished be.INF | |
You know that the assignment should be finished by tomorrow. |
a.' | Jy weet dat die werkstuk môre klaar [(VP) moet wees]. |
you.2SG know.PRS that.COMP the assignment tomorrow finished must.AUX.MOD be.INF | |
You know that the assignment should be finished by tomorrow. |
b. | Hulle vra of jy [(VP) wil [(NP) [(N)seremoniemeester]] wees]. |
they ask.PRS if.COMP you.2SG want.to.AUX.MOD master.of.ceremonies be.INF | |
They are asking whether you want to be master of ceremonies. |
b.' | Hulle vra of jy seremoniemeester[(VP) wil wees]. |
they ask.PRS if.COMP you.2SG master.of.ceremonies want.to.AUX.MOD be.INF | |
They are asking whether you want to be master of ceremonies. |
c. | Ons wonder of julle hieroor [(VP) sal [(PP) in die moeilikheid] kom]. |
we wonder if.COMP you.2PL PN.over will.AUX.MOD [in the trouble] come.INF | |
We are wondering whether you will get into trouble about this. |
c.' | Ons wonder of julle hieroor in die moeilikheid[(VP) sal kom]. |
we wonder if.COMP you.2PL PN.over [in the trouble] will.AUX.MOD come.INF | |
We are wondering whether you will get into trouble about this. |
Verb clusters are also permeated by direct objects and object complementives. In the case of the direct object in (3), the generic noun is preferred to determiner phrases, cf. (3ai). When a mass noun permeates as object, as in (3b) and (3bi), the permeated and non-permeated variants seem equally acceptible. This is also the case with the objec complementive in (3c) and (3ci). In the case of a prepositional phrase, the non-permeated variant, as in (3di), is preferable.
a. | Om te [(VP) moet [(NP)'n appel/*die appel] eet], is vir hom 'n straf. |
for.COMP PTCL.INF must.AUX.MOD an apple / the apple eat, is for him a punishment | |
Having to eat an apple / the apple is punishment to him. |
a.' | Om te [(VP) moet [(NP) appels] eet], is vir hom 'n straf. |
for.COMP PTCL.INF must.AUX.MOD apples eat.INF is for him a punishment | |
Having to eat apples is punishment to him. |
b. | As ons net [(VP)sou [(NP) [(N) geld]] hê], kon ons daarmee voortgaan. |
if.CNJ we only shall.AUX.MOD.PRT money have.INF can.AUX.MOD.PRT we PN.with ahead.go.INF | |
If only we had money, we could go ahead with it. |
b.' | As ons net geld [(VP) sou hê], kon ons daarmee voortgaan. |
if.CNJ we only money will.AUX.MOD.PRT have.INF can.AUX.MOD.PRT we PN.with ahead.go.INF | |
If only we had money, we could go ahead with it. |
c. | Dat julle die kamer [(VP) moet [(ADJ)pienk] verf], is jammer. |
that.COMP you.2PL the room must.AUX.MOD.PRS pink paint.INF is a.pity | |
That you have to paint the room pink is a pity. |
c.' | Dat julle die kamer pienk [(VP) moet verf], is jammer. |
that.COMP you.2PL the room pink must.AUX.MOD paint.INF is a.pity | |
That you have to paint the room pink is a pity. |
d. | Ek sal dit waardeer as jy die feite teen môre [(VP) kan [(PP)in die hande] kry. |
I will.AUX.MOD.PRS it appreciate.INF if.CNJ you.2SG the facts by tomorrow can.PRS in the hands get.INF | |
I would appreciate it if you could get hold of the facts by tomorrow. |
d.' | Ek sal dit waardeer as jy die feite teen môre in die hande [(VP) kan kry]. |
I will.AUX.MOD it appreciate.INF if.CNJ you.2SG the facts by tomorrow in the hands can.AUX.MOD get.INF | |
I would appreciate it if you could get hold of the facts by tomorrow. |
See also the following sections:
- Permeation by predicates
- Permeation by direct objects and object complementives
- Permeation according to weight
- Permeation by adverbials
In Afrikaans verbal particles are attached to the main verb rather than preceding the final cluster, which means that permeation, as in (4a), is the preferred option. However, heavier non-verbal structures such as adverbials, as in (4c), and prepositional phrases, as in (4d), tend to precede the final verb cluster.
a. | Hy vra of jy die bal <?op> probeer <op->blaas. | ||||||||||||||
he ask.PRS if.COMP you.2SG the ball <up.PTCL> try.LINK <up.PTCL> blow.INF | |||||||||||||||
He asks whether you are trying to inflate the ball. |
b. | Sy vra of jy die trok <verby> gaan probeer <verby->steek. | ||||||||||||||
She ask.PRS if.COMP you.2SG the truck <past.PTCL> will.AUX.MOD try.LINK <past.PART> take.INF | |||||||||||||||
She asks whether you are going to try to overtake the truck. |
c. | Ek sal bly wees as jy die stof <buitentoe> kan <?buitentoe> vee. | ||||||||||||||
I will.AUX.MOD glad be.INF if.CNJ you.2SG the dust <outside.to.ADV> can.AUX.MOD <outside.to.ADV> sweep.INF | |||||||||||||||
I'll be glad if you could sweep the dust out. |
d. | Jannie vra of Kersvader <deur die skoorsteen> sal moet <?deur die skoorsteen> klim. | ||||||||||||||
Jannie ask.PRS if.COMP Father.Christmas through the chimney> will.AUX.MOD must.AUX.MOD <through the chimney> climb.INF | |||||||||||||||
Jannie asks whether Father Christmas will have to climb through the chimney. |
The following examples suggest that not all kinds of adverbials permeate a verb cluster with equal ease. The adverbials are an adverb of manner in (5a), temporal adverbs in (5b) and a modal particle in (5c).
a. | Doen dit as jy die gaste wil laat vinniger eet. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
doen dit as jy die gaste [(VP) wil laat [(ADV) vinniger] eet] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
do.IMP this if.CNJ you.2SG the guests want.to.AUX.MOD let.LINK faster eat.INF | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Do this if you want to let the guests eat faster. |
b. | ?Doen dit as jy die gaste wil laat nou al aansit. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
doen dit as jy die gaste [(VP) wil laat [(ADV) nou al] aansit] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
do.IMP this if.CNJ you.2SG the guests want.to.AUX.MOD let.LINK now already down.sit.INF | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Do this if you want the guests to sit down (for the meal) already. |
c. | ??Doen dit as jy die gaste wil rêrig trakteer. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
doen dit as jy die gaste [(VP) wil rêrig] trakteer] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
do.IMP this if.CNJ you.2SG the guests want.to.AUX.MOD really.ADV treat.INF | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Do this if you really want to treat the guests. |
