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    -sk
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    The suffix -sk derives adjectives from nouns (slaaf slave > slaafsk slavish). The suffix has a variant in -ysk. This variant is also productive, but mainly attached to non-native bases. Examples are oseaan ocean > oseanysk oceanic, kommunist communist > kommunistysk communistic and kwadraat square > kwadratysk quadratic.

    The semantics of these derivations are diverse, but in many cases it can be described as "in relation with {noun}", "concerning {noun}" or "of the kind of {noun}". The meaning of words with a -sk suffix often corresponds with the meaning of words with the -ich suffix; both derivations are often interchangeable.

    The suffix also takes adjectives and verbs as a base. Examples are grut large > grutsk proud and prate to talk > praatsk talkative. In some cases, the base is not or no longer an existing Frisian word, so its category cannot be ascertained. An example is melaatsk leprous < *melaat. For expository reasons, these bases will be dealt with in this topic as well.

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    [+]Noun as input

    Adjectives derived from nouns with the suffix -sk express a property related to the meaning of the noun. This is possibly the most common group of -sk derivations, which can be considered to be productive. Examples are given in the table below:

    Table 1
    Base form Derivation
    boer farmer boersk rural, peasant-like
    dea death deadsk deathly
    himel heaven himelsk heavenly
    skoalle school skoalsk school-like, regimented
    ierde earth ierdsk earthly
    stêd city stedsk towny
    tsjerke church tsjerksk religious, devout
    heak hook heaksk orthogonal
    bern child bernsk childish
    slaaf slave slaafsk slavish
    An -ich derivation with similar semantics can be found in the following examples: moarn morning > moarnsk / moarnich having a morning mood, hûn dog > hûnsk / hûnich despicable, bolle bull > bolsk / bollich on heat (cows) and raam ram > ramsk / rammich on heat (sheep).

    A similar type of adjectives is formed out of nouns denoting days, months or seasons: snein Sunday > sneinske broek Sunday trousers, maart March ~ maartske bui March shower, simmer summer ~ simmerske picknick summer picnic. Depending on the context, the meaning is "typical for {noun}" or "meant for {noun}". Similar derivations related to timespans are forms ending in -liks).

    The suffix -sk is also used to derive geographical adjectives, this is discussed in the topic on -sk with a geographical name as base. Furthermore, it pops up in synthetic compounds, in which the noun is preceded by an adposition, as in oerseesk over-sea-SUFF oversea.

    Derivations with -ysk are mostly added after non-native bases. The semantics of these derivations are diverse, but in many cases it can be described as "in relation with {noun}", "concerning {noun}" or "of the kind of {noun}". Examples are given in the table below:

    Table 2
    Base form Derivation
    magneet magnet magnetysk magnetic
    fulkaan volcano fulkanysk volcanic
    automaat automat automatysk automatic
    ritme rhytm ritmysk rhythmic
    film film filmysk cinematic
    In some cases, -ysk is added to a root that does not exist as an independent word:

    Table 3
    Base word Base root Derivation
    krityk criticism *krit kritysk critical
    fonetyk phonetics *fonet fonetysk phonetic
    logika logic *log logysk logical
    syklus cycle *sykl syklysk cyclical
    extra
    Words ending in -y

    There are also derivations of which the base form ends in -y, for example: fotografy photography > fotografysk photographic and astrology astrology > astrologysk astrological. In these examples, the derivations are seen as one of the suffix -sk. Alternatively, they could also be interpreted as a derivation with its variant suffix -ysk: fotograaf photographer > fotografysk photographic and astroloog astrologer > astrologysk astrological. Semantically, this has little sense, however, as a word like fotografysk is directly related to fotografy photography, and not to a photographer.

    [+]Verb as input

    The suffix -sk is also used to derive adjectives from verbal stems. This appears to happen much more often than in the case of the Dutch counterpart -s. Some examples are given in the table below:

    Table 4
    Base form Derivation
    stúmje to sulk stúmsk sulk about/over
    smeule to rivile smeulsk scornful
    slite to wear out slytsk worn
    kliemje to stick kliemsk sticky
    spotte to joke spotsk scoffing
    gapje to yawn gapsk yawny
    klomje to shiver klomsk shivery
    prate to talk praatsk talkative
    pronkje to flaunt pronksk gaudy
    snauwe to snarl snausk snarly
    A similar semantic -ich derivation, sometimes with linking element -er-, can be found in the following examples: pronkje to flaunt > pronksk / pronkerich gaudy, snauwe to snarl > snausk / snauwerich snarly, broeie to brew > broeisk / broei(er)ich sultry and haatsje to hate > haatsk / hatich resentful.

    Synthetic compounds such as goederjousk generous may also be analyzed as members of this group, because they are partially verbal. More details can be found in the part on synthetic compounds.

    [+]Adjective as input

    There are only two derivations which have an adjective as base. These are grut large > grutsk proud and âld old > âldsk oldish. Neither of them has a very transparent semantics.

    [+]Opaque base

    In some cases, the base does not exist as a word. Examples are given in the table below:

    Table 5
    Base form Derivation
    *ryn rynsk generous
    *mjit mjitsk sickly sweet
    *skrou skrousk cold
    *bat batsk proud
    *fluen fluensk flattering
    *brod brodsk broody
    *loop loopsk in heat
    *oerdweal oerdwealsk extravagant
    [+]Phonological properties

    The suffix -sk [sk] does not change the stress pattern of the word. When the base form ends in a schwa, this vowel is deleted: ierde earth > ierdsk earthly.

    The suffix -ysk [isk] does not bear main stress, but it is cohering: it attracts the main stress of the base, which ends up in the position before the suffix. Examples are DRAma drama > draMAtysk dramatic, ALfabet alphabet > alfaBEtysk alphabetic, FULkaan volcano > fulKAnysk volcanic. Bases of -ysk adjectives exhibit various alternations typical of non-native stem allomorphy in the last syllable, witness the following pairs:

    • When the base ends in schwa, this vowel is deleted before -ysk: metoade method > metoadysk methodical, anekdoate anecdote > anekdoatysk anecdotic, hygiëne hygiene > hygiënysk hygienic, ritme rhythm > ritmysk rhythmic.
    • The vowel of the last syllable undergoes vowel lengthening; this happens due to the fact that the last syllable bears stress. Examples are: motor [motɔr] engine > motoarysk [moto.ərisk] motor, reuma [rø:mɑ] rheumatism > reumatysk [rø:ma:tisk] rheumatic, alfabet [ɑlfɑbɛt] alphabet > alfabetysk [ɑlfɑbe:tisk] alphabetical. In apostel [ɑpɔstəl] apostle > apostolysk [ɑpɔsto:lisk] apostolic the schwa has become a full vowel.
    • If a base form ends in /ze/ or /se/, this ending is replaced by /t/: hypoteze hypothesis > hypotetysk hypothetical, analyse analysis > analytysk analytic, emfaze emphasis > emfatysk emphatic. This is not the case in diagnoaze [diɑgno.əzə] diagnosis > diagnostysk [diɑgnɔstisk] diagnostic, where the vowel is shortened, a linking element -t- is inserted and the voiced [z] becomes voiceless [s].
    • In the following examples, in which the /s/ is replaced by /t/, the vowel can also be lengthened: gaos [ɡa.ɔs] chaos > gaotysk [ɡao:tisk] chaotic, skepsis scepticism > skeptysk sceptical.

    extra
    Literature

    The phonological properties of -ysk largely resemble those of the Dutch equivalent -isch. More information about this can be found in De Haas and Trommelen (1993:328-331).

    [+]Linking

    In some -ysk derivations, there is a linking element between the base form and the suffix. When the base form ends in -ma, the linking element -t- is used: drama drama > drama-t-ysk dramatic, astma asthma > astma-t-ysk ashtmatic, dogma dogma > dogma-t-ysk dogmatic. Another linking element is -at- which can be found in probleem problem > problem-at-ysk problematic. Note that here the /e/ can also be reduced to schwa. The linking element -ar- can also occur: fragmint fragment > fragmint-ar-ysk fragmentary. There is also another linking element, -ist-, resulting in the ending -istysk. We see this in examples like the following: humor humor > humor-ist-ysk humorous, modern modern > modern-ist-ysk modernistic. However, examples like modernistysk modernistic can also be seen as forms where the base ending /-me/ has been deleted, and -t- + -ysk has been added: modernisme modernism > modernis-t-ysk modernistic.

    [+]Morphological potential

    The suffix -sk can be input for further derivations with the suffix -ens and in some particular cases with -heid. Examples are rynsk generous > rynskens generosity and bernsk childish > bernskens / bernskheid infancy. The suffix -ysk cannot be input for further derivations, cf. magnetysk magnetic > *magnetyskheid or ritmysk rhythmic > *ritmyskheid.

    [+]Deletion of /k/: [(i)sk] or [(i)s]

    According to Van der Meer (1988), Tamminga (1963:227-230) and Visser (1985), the /k/ in the cluster /sk/ tends to be deleted in present-day language. Hence, [(i)sk] is changing into [(i)s].

    Possible factors in the retention of /k/ are listed below:

    • According to Tamminga (1963:227-230), /k/ is more resistent if the word is monosyllabic, or if the suffix occurs in a syllable with focus. So, in monosyllabic words like praatsk talkative and slytsk worn the /k/ is more likely to be pronounced than in bisyllabic words like minmânsk not man enough to do it or oerseesk overseas.
    • According to Van der Meer (1988) and Tamminga (1963:227-230), /k/ is stronger in inflected forms. Thus in inflected words like stedske townish and âldske elderly, /k/ is more likely to be pronounced than in non-inflected stedsk towny or âldsk oldish.
    • According to Visser (1985) and Van der Meer (1988), /k/ is stronger in words where -sk can barely be seen as a suffix (for example: tosk tooth > *tos).
    • Frisian has a lot of words that have a counterpart in Dutch (for example: fisk fish vs Dutch vis fish, or Dútsk German vs Dutch Duits German). /k/ appears to be stronger in forms that do not have a Dutch counterpart. So in words like fisk fish and Dútsk German it is more likely that /k/ will not be pronounced than in words like grutsk proud (Van der Meer (1988) and Tamminga (1963:227-230)).

    These factors do not rule out the possibility of a pronunciation without /k/, they only say that the /k/ has a stronger position in these cases. Weening (2014) shows that, under influence of linguistic factors as the ones mentioned above and social factors like age, the suffix is indeed more and more pronounced without final /k/. In the written language, however, -sk still has a very strong position. The ability of writing Frisian appears to have a positive influence on the speaker's pronunciation of /k/, that is, someone who can write Frisian is using /k/ more often in his speech than someone who cannot.

    extra
    Literature

    This article is based on Hoekstra (1998:132). More information about the suffix -sk can be found in the following literature: Van der Meer (1988), Tamminga (1963:227-230), Visser (1985) and Weening (2014).

    References
    • Haas, Wim de & Trommelen, Mieke1993Morfologisch handboek van het Nederlands. Een overzicht van de woordvormingSDU Uitgeverij
    • Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Meer, Geart van der1988It 'achterheaksel' SK en it leksikonWurdfoarried en wurdgrammatika, LjouwertLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Meer, Geart van der1988It 'achterheaksel' SK en it leksikonWurdfoarried en wurdgrammatika, LjouwertLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Meer, Geart van der1988It 'achterheaksel' SK en it leksikonWurdfoarried en wurdgrammatika, LjouwertLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Meer, Geart van der1988It 'achterheaksel' SK en it leksikonWurdfoarried en wurdgrammatika, LjouwertLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Meer, Geart van der1988It 'achterheaksel' SK en it leksikonWurdfoarried en wurdgrammatika, LjouwertLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Tamminga, Douwe Annes1963Op 'e taelhelling. Losse trochsneden fan Frysk taellibben. IBoalsertA.J. Osinga
    • Tamminga, Douwe Annes1963Op 'e taelhelling. Losse trochsneden fan Frysk taellibben. IBoalsertA.J. Osinga
    • Tamminga, Douwe Annes1963Op 'e taelhelling. Losse trochsneden fan Frysk taellibben. IBoalsertA.J. Osinga
    • Tamminga, Douwe Annes1963Op 'e taelhelling. Losse trochsneden fan Frysk taellibben. IBoalsertA.J. Osinga
    • Tamminga, Douwe Annes1963Op 'e taelhelling. Losse trochsneden fan Frysk taellibben. IBoalsertA.J. Osinga
    • Visser, Willem1985Ta de nasalearring yn it Frysk (diel II)In tydskrift foar Fryske Taalkunde169-89
    • Visser, Willem1985Ta de nasalearring yn it Frysk (diel II)In tydskrift foar Fryske Taalkunde169-89
    • Visser, Willem1985Ta de nasalearring yn it Frysk (diel II)In tydskrift foar Fryske Taalkunde169-89
    • Weening, Joke2014De uitspraak van de woord-finale /sk/-clusterRijks Universiteit GroningenThesis
    • Weening, Joke2014De uitspraak van de woord-finale /sk/-clusterRijks Universiteit GroningenThesis
    About this article
    Author(s): Siebren Dyk, Joke Weening
    Category: Frisian Morphology
    Keywords: adjectivalsuffixderivation/k/-deletion
    Version: 1.0, April 2016
    Version history:
    version editor(s) date remarks
    1.0 Siebren Dyk, Joke Weening April 2016
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