
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Afrikaans imperatives are verb-first, and do not allow any element in the clause-initial position before the verb. If there is preceding material, such as a vocative or another exclamation to draw attention, it is separated from the clause with an intonation break or comma, and not integrated into the clause. Such attention-grabbing expressions can be placed before or after the clause with equal ease, and are optional. The typical verb-first imperative is illustrated by the examples in (1), while the examples in (2) show the options for the placement of the vocative and other attention-grabbing expressions. Example (1c) demonstrates that verbal particles can either follow the verb in the verb-initial position, or can be positioned in the verb-final position after the middle field. Example (1d) illustrates that combinations of linking verbs and main verbs occur adjacent to each other in the verb-initial position.
a. | Staan! | ||||||||||||||
stand.IMP | |||||||||||||||
Stand! |
b. | Sit stil! | ||||||||||||||
sit.IMP still | |||||||||||||||
Sit still! |
c. | Sit neer die geweer! |
put.IMP down.PREP.PTCL the gun | |
Put down the gun! |
c.' | Sit die geweer neer! |
put.IMP the gun down.PREP.PTCL | |
Put the gun down! |
d. | Kom eet nou ontbyt! |
come.LINK.IMP eat.IMP now breakfast | |
Come and eat you breakfast! |
d.' | *Kom nou ontbyt eet! |
come.LINK.IMP now breakfast eat.IMP | |
To mean: Come and eat you breakfast! |
a. | My kind, eet nou! |
my child eat.IMP now | |
My child, eat please! |
a.' | Eet nou, my kind! |
eat.IMP now my child | |
Please eat, my child! |
b. | Hi jy, kom hier! |
hi you come.IMP here | |
Hi you, come here! |
b.' | Kom hier, jy! |
come.IMP here you | |
Come here, you! |
There is a specific construction for the formation of negative imperatives in Afrikaans. The modal moet must fuses with the negative particle nie not to create the form moenie must=not mustn't, which occupies the verb-initial position of the negative imperative, while the main verb is positioned in the verb-final part of the clause, and followed by the clause-final nie. By extension, a more emphatic negative can be formed by separating the moet en nie, although the form moenie is the more frequent option. With the split form moet … nie, it is possible to introduce intervening material between the modal and negative particle, such as hedges or a reflexive. The negative imperative forms are exemplified in (3), where the primeless examples represent the typical form and the primed examples the more emphatic form.
a. | Moenie soveel tyd agter die rekenaar spandeer nie, asseblief! |
must=not so.much time behind the computer spend not.NEG please | |
Don't spend so much time behind the computer, please! |
a.' | Moet asseblief nie soveel tyd agter die rekenaar spandeer nie! |
must please not so.much time behind the computer spend PTCL.NEG | |
Please do not spend so much time behind the computer! |
b. | Moenie jou aan hom steur nie! |
must=not you.REFL to him be.bothered PTCL.NEG | |
Don't let him bother you! |
b.' | Moet jou nie aan hom steur nie! |
must you.REFL not to him be.bothered PTCL.NEG | |
Do not let him bother you! |
Imperatives are the prototypical form for the expression of directives. The directive can be a direct command, but it can also be construed as a request, especially when accompanied by markers of politeness, such as the form asseblief please. A direct command and a more polite request are exemplified by (4a) and (4b) respectively.
a. | Sit die klank sagter! | ||||||||||||||
put.IMP the sound softer | |||||||||||||||
Turn down the volume! |
b. | Gee asseblief vir my die suiker aan! | ||||||||||||||
give.IMP please for me the suger on | |||||||||||||||
Please pass me the sugar! |
The imperative form also serves a range of further functions in mediating the interaction between the speaker and his/her addressee(s), as outlined by Ponelis (1979:384). Proposals, instructions, and invitations are all directive speech acts, but are less face-threatening than direct commands. These options are illustrated by the examples in (5), taken from Ponelis (1979: 384). In a more subjective domain, imperatives can be used to express blessings or good wishes, as well as curses or bad wishes, as illustrated by the examples in (6).
a. | Stel 'n kringbusdiens in. | ||||||||||||||
(let us) Introduce a circular new bus route. | |||||||||||||||
[Proposal] |
b. | Sny die uie in skywe en braai hulle bruin. | ||||||||||||||
Cut the onions into rings and brown them. | |||||||||||||||
[Instruction] |
c. | Drink 'n koppie koffie saam. | ||||||||||||||
Have a cup of coffee with us. | |||||||||||||||
[Invitation] |
a. | Ry mooi! | ||||||||||||||
Drive safely! | |||||||||||||||
[Good wish] |
b. | Gaan bars! | ||||||||||||||
Drop dead! | |||||||||||||||
[Bad wish] |
Afrikaans allows an overt subject to be used with the imperative. If selected, this subject has to be positioned at the beginning of the middle field, after the verb. The resulting word order is identical to the word order of general interrogatives and exclamatives, but the intonation will clearly distinguish it from an interrogative in speech. It will be harder to draw a clear syntactic distinction between the imperative and exclamative, except that the imperative is directed at the addressee. To the extent that the exclamative is also directed at the addresse, e.g. in directing bad wishes at the addressee, the distinction becomes unimportant. Imperatives with overt subjects are illustrated in (7), with examples from Ponelis (1979:385).
a. | Haal jy jou hoed af! | ||||||||||||||
You, take off your hat! |
b. | Hou Meneer vir ons hier vas! | ||||||||||||||
Hold this for us, Sir! |
The overt subject at the beginning of the middle field of the imperative can also combine with vocatives, since vocatives are not fully integrated with the clause at a syntactic level. Vocatives and a singular subject combine well when the use of the vocative and subject is also combined with a pointing gesture in contexts of interaction, especially when singling out one individual from a group, as illustrated in example (8).
Neil, bring jy daai tas. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Neil, you bring that suitcase. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
D. Opperman: Hartland, episode 1 |
- Ponelis, F.A1979Afrikaanse sintaksis.Van Schaik
- Ponelis, F.A1979Afrikaanse sintaksis.Van Schaik
- Ponelis, F.A1979Afrikaanse sintaksis.Van Schaik
