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    Middle formation
    quickinfo

    The middle voice is a construction type which differs from the active voice and passive voice in form and function. Its main function is to characterise or qualify an entity, such as hierdie mes this knife in (1), with reference to the action expressed by a verb, such as slyp sharpen in (1), rather than describing the action or activity as such, as would be the case in regular active or passive declaratives. As the subject of a middle verb construction refers to an entity which is qualified and therefore differentiated from other entities, it is contrastive in nature. Thus hierdie mes this knife in (1) contrasts with other knives, whereas (2) is devoid of meaning in as far as knives are usually sharpened.

    1
    Hierdie mes slyp maklik.
    this knife sharpen.PRS easily
    This knife is easy to sharpen.
    2
    ?Messe slyp maklik.
    knives sharpen.PRS easily
    Knives sharpen easily.

    The entity to be characterised is expressed by the grammatical subject of the clause, and the semantic relationship between entity and action is usually defined further by an evaluative modifier, such as maklik easily in (3). The modifier assists in adapting the verbal action to its function as qualifier in the middle construction. Thus sy handskrif his handwriting is qualified not only in regard to the act of reading (lees), but in particular in regard to the ease of reading (maklik), i.e. its readability.

    3
    Sy handskrif lees maklik.
    his handwriting read.PRS easily
    His handwriting is easy to read.

    In order to distinguish between the thematic role of a middle subject, which resembles the role of a direct object in an active sentence, and the role of the subject of an ergative verb when used intransitively, a distinction needs to be made between the thematic role of patient, indicating that an entity undergoes the action stemming from an agent, and that of theme, indicating that an entity is merely involved in an action. The object of a transitively used ergative verb, as in (4), corresponds to the subject of the same verb when used intransitively, as in (5). (5) is a middle construction because the subject, die ligte stoele the light chairs, has the role of patient. (6), however, is a regular intransitive construction, and die stoele the chairs has the role of theme. The intransitive clause (7) cannot be a middle construction, as the subject is agentive, rather than patient or theme. Middle constructions usually require an evaluative modifier, such as maklik easily. Therefore, if maklik is omitted in (5), a middle reading is unlikely.

    4
    Hulle skuif die stoele in nuwe rye.
    they shift.PRS the chairs in new rows
    They are shifting the chairs in new rows.
    5
    Die ligte stoele skuif maklik.
    the light chairs shift.PRS easily
    The light chairs are easy to shift.
    6
    Die stoele skuif rond tydens die aardbewing.
    the chairs shift.PRS around during the earthquake
    The chairs move around during the earthquake.
    7
    Die leeu brul in die bos.
    the lion roar.PRS in the bush
    The lion is roaring in the bush.

    The subject of a middle verb construction need not only have the thematic role of patient, as in (8), but may also be instrument, or have locative or temporal reference, as in (9), (10) and (11), respectively. The subject of a middle verb may therefore be typified as non-agentive.

    8
    Die vars brood sny lekker.
    the fresh bread cut.PRS nicely
    The fresh bread cuts nicely.
    9
    Die nuwe mes sny lekker.
    the new knife cut.PRS nicely
    The new knife cuts nicely.
    10
    Daardie pad ry moeilik.
    that road drive.PRS with.difficulty
    That road is difficult to drive on.
    11
    Sondae skou beter as jy jou huis wil verkoop.
    Sundays show.PRS better if.CNJ you.2SG your house want.to.AUX.MOD sell.INF
    Sundays are better show days if you want to sell your house.

    Therefore, if a middle construction requires a non-agentive subject, a verb expressing action or activity and in most cases an evaluative modifier, such a construction may be schematised as follows:

    [S[NP[- agentive]]] [VP [V[ + action] (modifier)]]

    For a middle construction, such as (12a) and (12b), to be recognised as such rather than as an active construction, the thematic role of the subject needs to be differentiated clearly from the subject role expected in a corresponding active construction. For a given verb the thematic role of a middle subject may, however, not be restricted to one possibility. Thus, die koek the cake in (12a) has the role of patient as it has in its active correlate (12ai), while die mes the knife in (12b) has the role of instrument as it has in its active correlate (12bi). In both cases the middle subject may be described as non-agentive.

    12
    a. Die koek sny vinnig.
    the cake cut.PRS quickly
    The cake can be cut quickly.
    a.' Die kok sny die koek vinnig.
    the cook cut.PRS the cake quickly
    The cook is cutting the cake quickly.
    b. Die mes sny vinnig.
    the knife cut.PRS quickly
    The knife slices quickly.
    b.' Die kok sny vinnig met die mes.
    the cook cut.PRS quickly with the knife
    The cook is cutting quickly with the knife.

    A middle verb construction usually – but not always – requires an evaluative modifier to mediate semantically between the entity to be characterised and the verbal action by which it is qualified. Given that wissel change is a transitive verb, a construction such as (13a), with a non-agentive subject, is marked. However, a middle interpretation becomes possible when a modifier is added. Two types of modifier may be distinguished, one which merely modifies the action expressed by the verb, and another which also makes reference to subjective evaluation by an implied agent. Thus, while vinnig quickly in (13b) merely refers to the efficiency with which the gears are changed, maklik easily in (13c) refers to the subjective evaluation of the process by an implied agent.

    13
    a. *Die ratte wissel.
    the gears change.PRS
    To mean: The gears are changing.
    b. Die ratte wissel vinnig.
    the gears change.PRS quickly
    The gears can be changed quickly.
    c. Die ratte wissel maklik.
    the gears change.PRS easily
    It is easy to change the gears.

    The difference between the two types of modifier is reflected in corresponding "easy to please" constructions, in that only the subjective evaluation produces an acceptable utterance:

    14
    a. *Dit is vinnig om die ratte te wissel.
    it is fast for.COMP the gears PTCL.INF change.INF
    To mean: The gears can be changed quickly.
    b. Dit is maklik om die ratte te wissel.
    it is easy for.COMP the gears PTCL.INF change.INF
    It is easy to change the gears.

    In some cases the use of the verb as only complement is sufficient to indicate the successful completion of the action signalled by the verb. This interpretation may be strengthened by stressing the verb.

    15
    a. Hierdie kaartjies verkóóp.
    these tickets sell.PRS
    These tickets are selling well.
    b. Daardie deur slúit.
    that door lock.PRS
    That door can be locked.

    A number of constructions, for instance the passive voice as in (16a), resemble the middle verb construction to a greater or smaller extent. The middle construction differs from the passive in having a non-agentive subject, not employing a periphrastic passive verb form, and in not expressing an agent explicitly by means of a deur-phrase, as in (16b).

    16
    a. Hierdie soort moord word moeilik opgelos.
    this kind murder be.AUX.PASS.PRS difficult.ADV up.solve.PST.PTCP
    This kind of murder is difficult to solve.
    b. Hierdie soort moord los moeilik op (*deur die polisie).
    this kind murder solve.PRS difficult up by the police
    This kind of murder is difficult to solve (by the police).
    readmore
    [+]Introduction

    In the first section, Construction and function, the basic constituents of the middle construction and their interrelated functions are described. The middle voice is a construction whose main function is to characterise or qualify a sentential subject with reference to a verbal complement. A modifier is usually employed to specify the intended relationship between the verbal qualifier and the nominal being qualified. Thus in (17), where die nuwe boek the new book is qualified by the action lees to read, the adverbial lekker nicely indicates that the intended attribute is 'readability' rather than the process of 'reading' as such.

    17
    Die nuwe boek lees lekker.
    the new book read.PRS nicely
    The new book is nice to read.

    The role of the middle subject is discussed in the second section, namely The subject of the middle construction. The subject is characterised as basically (i) non-agentive and (ii) contrastive, and may have various roles in common with non-subject roles of active sentences. These may be (iii) thematic roles, e.g. patient, theme, instrument and even locative and temporal indications. In the section Middle, ergative and intransitive constructions the focus is on the relationship between subject and verb, and it is pointed out that the latter two construction types cannot be equated with the middle. The following section, Evaluative modification, highlights the role of the modifier in linking verbal action to the nominal it characterises or qualifies. Next, reference is made to the role of an implied or overt experiencer. Finally, a number of constructions which partially resemble the middle construction are compared and contrasted with it, e.g. the passive, topicalised actives, the easy/hard to please construction, derivations with -baar -able as suffix, and attributive present participles and past participles .

    [+]Construction and function

    The middle voice is a construction type differing from the active voice, on the one hand, in not admitting an agentive subject, and from the passive, on the other hand, in not employing verbal periphrastic forms or admitting an agentive deur by-phrase. From a functional point of view, the middle construction is employed primarily in a characterising or qualifying role rather than expressing an action, and the entity referred to by the subject is characterised as being amenable to the action expressed by the verb. Van Schoor (1983:188-189) describes the process as one where a predication consisting of a transitive verb and its object, as in (18a), relinquishes its secondary position to become the focus point of a new predication in which the subject position is appropriated or seized and an adjunct of manner or adjuct of comparison attains primary importance. In (18b) lekker nicely predicates boek book, but only in regard to the reading thereof.

    18
    a. Dié skoene dra.PRS besonder gemaklik.
    these shoes wear extremely comfortably
    These shoes are extremely comfortable to wear.
    b. Hierdie boek lees.PRS lekker.
    this book read easily
    It is easy to read this book.

    However, in view of the fact that more than just transitive verbs are involved as grammatical sources, this analysis should be extended further. Apart from being theme or patient, the subject of a middle verb may also fulfill the thematic role of instrument, or have locative or temporal reference. The verb, usually with the aid of an evaluative modifier of the verbal action such as maklik easily, moeilik with difficulty, goed well or swak/sleg badly, depicts a property or characteristic of the subject referent such as the readability of hierdie boek this book in (19a), and the enjoyability of Piazzola se musiek Piazzola's music in (19b). While hierdie boek in (19a) derives from the direct object of the transitive verb lees read, as in (19ai), Piazzola se musiek in (19b) stems from the prepositional object of the verb luister listen in (19bi).

    19
    a. Hierdie boek lees maklik.
    this book read.PRS easily
    This book is easy to read.
    a.' Die mense lees hierdie boek.
    the people read.PRS this book
    People read this book.
    b. Piazzola se musiek luister lekker.
    Piazzola POSS music listen.PRS nicely
    Piazzola's music is nice to listen to.
    b.' Mense luister graag na Piazzola se musiek.
    people listen.PRS gladly to Piazzola POSS music
    People like to listen to Piazzola's music.
    [+]A semantic triad

    Semantically, employing a verb in middle verb function involves three elements which usually find formal expression: (i) an entity to be qualified (the grammatical subject), (ii) the verb itself and (iii) further evaluative modification serving to explicate the way the verbal action is suited to qualifying the entity in question, for example onderhoudend engaging in (20ai). The modification may also involve subjective evaluation by an implied experiencer, as for example in the case of maklik easily in (20a), gemaklik easily in (20ai) and lekker enjoyable in (20b).

    20
    a. Miller se teks lees maklik en sonder fieterjasies.
    Millar POSS text read.PRS easily and without frills
    Millar's text reads easily and without frills.
    TK
    a.' Dit maak dat hierdie resensie gemaklik en onderhoudend lees.
    this make.PRS that.COMP this review easily and engaging.ADV read.PRS
    This review is therefore an easy and engaging read.
    VivA-KPO
    b. Hierdie vertellings lees lekker.
    these stories read.PRS enjoyably
    These stories are enjoyable to read.
    b.' 'n Mens lees so lekker aan sy vertellings en mymeringe.
    a person read.PRS so enjoyably on his stories and ruminations
    His stories and ruminations are so enjoyable to read.
    TK
    [+]The subject of the middle construction

    (i)The subject as non-agentive

    The use of a verb in its middle function is recognisable through the discrepancy between the action described by the verb and the lack of an agentive subject preceding the verb, for after all webpages, as in (21a) cannot – or should not – download of their own accord; sand, as in (21b) cannot compact itself; and paper, as in (21c), is not typically used as a cutter. The discrepancy brought about by the subject relinquishing its usual role of agent or theme, gave rise to the term usurpation used by De Villiers (1975:186-187) and others in describing this construction. The middle verb construction depends on the subject referent's capability of supporting a non-agentive interpretation, typically as patient in relation to the action specified by the verb. In the following examples the webblad web page (21a), sandgrond sandy soil (21b) and papier paper (21c) are all thematically interpretable as patient in relation to the action specified by the verb.

    21
    a. Om te kyk of die webblad gemaklik aflaai en vertoon.
    for.COMP PTCL.INF look.INF if.COMP the web.page easily download and display
    To see whether the web page is easy to download and display.
    VivA-KPO, adjusted
    b. Sandgrond kompakteer baie maklik.
    sand.soil compact.PRS very easily
    Sandy soil compacts very easily.
    VivA-KPO
    c. Papier sny maklik en is boonop goedkoop.
    paper cut.PRS easily and is also cheap
    Paper is easy to cut and is also cheap.
    TK, adjusted

    A middle construction may therefore be schematised as follows:

    [S[NP[- agentive]] [VP [V[ + action] (modifier)]]]

    (ii)The subject as contrastive

    In view of their characterising function, middle constructions are usually contrastive in nature. The subject may refer to an individuated entity in a class, or – in the case of generic reference – to a subclass within a wider category of classes. Thus in (22a) the subject refers to an individual flat in the category of flats (even a single sale), while in (22b) the subject refers to flats in contrast to other dwellings.

    22
    a. Daardie ou woonstel verkoop verbasend maklik.
    that old flat sell.PRS surprisingly easily
    Selling that old flat is surprisingly easy.
    b. Woonstelle verkoop maklik.
    flats sell.PRS easily
    Flats are easy to sell.

    In the following, fully generic reference is excluded in (23aii) and (23bii) for lack of contrast, as sweeping is usually done with brooms and no tennis player can serve without a racket.

    23
    a. Skoonmakers vee lekker met grasbesems.
    cleaners sweep.PRS well with grass.brooms
    Cleaners sweep well with grass brooms.
    a.' Grasbesems vee lekker.
    grass.brooms sweep.PRS easily
    It is easy to sweep with grass brooms.
    a.'' *Besems vee lekker.
    brooms sweep.PRS easily
    To mean: brooms sweep easily
    b. Sy slaan maklik af met dié raket.
    she serve.PRS easily off with this racket
    She serves easily with this racket.
    b.' Dié raket slaan maklik af.
    this racket serve.PRS easily off
    This racket is easy to serve with.
    b.'' *Rakette slaan maklik af.
    rackets serve.PRS easily off
    To mean: Serving with rackets is easy.

    Comparative constructions are favoured by middle verbs as they also entail contrastive reference:

    24
    a. Hy loop beter met hierdie skoene.
    he walk.PRS beter with these shoes
    He walks better with these shoes.
    b. Hierdie skoene loop beter as daardies.
    these shoes walk.PRS better than those
    These shoes are better to walk with than those.

    (iii)Thematic roles

    The subject of the middle construction may have several thematic roles in relation to the verb, such as patient, theme or instrument, and may even be a locative or temporal expression. When in the role of patient, it may correspond to the object of a transitive construction, as in (25a), or to the role of theme, as in (25b) or that of instrument, as in (25c), when corresponding to a prepositional object. When locative, as in (25d), or temporal, as in (25e), as expressed by an adjunct referring to 'place' or 'time', respectively, it may characterise a certain location or time as suitable for an action to take place. These roles can all be subsumed under non-agentive usage.

    25
    a. Die beeste kou die knolle.
    the cattle chew.PRS the bulbs
    The cattle are chewing the bulbs.
    a.' Die knolle kou maklik.
    the bulbs chew.PRS easily
    The bulbs are easy to chew.
    b. Hulle luister na die musiek.
    they listen.PRS to the music
    They are listening to the music.
    b.' Dié musiek luister lekker.
    this music listen.PRS pleasantly
    This music is nice to listen to.
    c. Hy loop beter met hierdie skoene.
    he walk.PRS better with these shoes
    He walks better with these shoes.
    c.' Hierdie skoene loop beter as daardies.
    these shoes walk.PRS better than those
    These shoes are better to walk with than those.
    d. Die passasiers sit op die agterskottels.
    the passenges sit.PRS on the rear.bucket.seats
    The passengers are sitting on the rear bucket seats.
    d.' Die agterskottels sit ewe gemaklik as die voorstes.
    the rear.bucket.seats sit.PRS equally comfortable than the front.ones
    It is equally comfortable to sit in the rear bucket seats than the front ones.
    TK
    e. Ons reis makliker in die vakansies.
    we travel.PRS easier in the holidays
    We travel easier during the holidays.
    e.' Die vakansies reis vir ons makliker.
    the holidays travel.PRS for us easier
    It is easier for us to travel during the holidays.

    In some instances a distinction between subject-as-object (the transitive middle) and subject-as-prepositional-object does not seem relevant, as the source could have been either:

    26
    a. Die ooms luister (na die) boeremusiek.
    the uncles listen.PRS to the folk.music
    The uncles are listening to the folk music.
    a.' Boeremusiek luister lekker.
    folk.music listen.PRS pleasantly
    It is nice to listen to folk music.
    b. Die bouers bou (aan die) huis.
    the builders build.PRS on the house
    The builders are building the house.
    b.' Die huis bou maklik.
    the house build.PRS easily
    The house is easy to build.

    A middle verb may be related to its subject in more than one way. Die nuwe saag the new saw in (27b), for instance, functions as an instrument, while die brandhout the firewood in (27c) undergoes the action and is therefore a patient.

    27
    a. Hy saag die brandhout met 'n nuwe saag.
    he saw.PRS the firewood with a new saw
    He saws the firewood with a new saw.
    b. Die nuwe saag saag lekker.
    the new saw saw.PRS well
    The new saw saws well.
    c. Die brandhout saag lekker.
    the firewood saw.PRS easily
    The firewood is easy to saw.
    [+]Middle, ergative and intransitive constructions

    Verbs like beskadig damage, skuif shift/move, breek break, verkleur discolour and brand burn, be on fire may be described as ergative verbs – "denoting verbs which can be used both transitively and intransitively to describe the same action, with the object in the former case being the subject in the latter, as in I boiled the kettle and the kettle boiled" (Kavanagh 1999). In order to differentiate between a middle construction, an ergative construction and a regular intransitive construction, a distinction will be made here between the terms patient and theme as thematic roles. The patient role will be understood to refer to an entity undergoing action implying an agent, while theme will only refer to an entity involved or participating in some action or activity. (28a) would be interpreted as a middle construction, because beskadig damage is a transitive verb, with pewter as direct object in the role of patient in (28ai). On the other hand, verteer digest, which could be transitive, as in (28bi), or intransitive, as in (28bii), is probably a regular intransitive in (30b) as it is unlikely that the athletes consciously partake in the digestive process.

    28
    a. Pewter beskadig maklik as dit nie versigtig hanteer word nie.
    pewter damage.PRS easily if.CNJ it not carefully handle.PST.PTCP be.AUX.PASS.PRS PTCL.NEG
    Pewter is damaged easily if it not handled with care.
    TK
    a.' Mense beskadig pewter maklik as hulle dit nie versigtig hanteer nie.
    people damage.PRS pewter easily if.CNJ they it not carefully handle.PRS PTCL.NEG
    People damage pewter easily if they don't handle it with care.
    b. Ons eet kos wat maklik verteer voordat ons hardloop.
    we eat.PRS food which.REL easily digest.PRS before.CNJ we run
    We eat food which digests easily before we run.
    TK
    b.' Die vlamme verteer die rietdakhuis.
    the flames consume.PRS the thatch.roof.house
    The flames are consuming the thatched roof house.
    HAT-5
    b.'' Komkommerslaai verteer nie goed nie.
    cucumber.salad digest.PRS not well PTCL.NEG
    Cucumber salad does not digest well.
    HAT-5

    The difference between beskadig as middle verb in (28a) and verteer as regular intransitive in (28bii) only resides in the fact that the thematic role of pewter is patient in the context of (28a), but that of verteer is theme in the context of (28b). In (29a) and (29ai) below, it is unlikely that break functions as a middle verb, since the action is a spontaneous (and unwanted) event rather than an action purposely performed with that effect in mind. Maklik easily is furthermore optional in (29a) and (29ai), while middle verbs are usually accompanied by an evaluative modifier. Pannekoeke pancakes and naels nails are therefore theme rather than patient. (29aii) and (29b) are also clearly intransitive rather than middle constructions, since adverbials such as vanself by themselves and outomaties automatically indicate that no external agentivity is involved. Similarly, verkleur fade, discolour in (29bi) can only be intransitive, even though verkleur can be used transitively, as in (29bii) and (29biii).

    29
    a. Pannekoeke breek maklik as dit omgekeer word.
    pancakes break.PRS easily if.CNJ it over.turn.PST.PTCP be.AUX.PASS.PRS
    Pancakes break easily when they are turned over.
    Leipzig corpus 1.0, adjusted
    a.' Is jou naels los en breek dit maklik?
    be.PRS your nails loose and break.PRS it easily
    Are your nails loose and do they break easily?
    Leipzig corpus 1.0
    a.'' Jou pannekoeke breek vanself.
    your pancakes break.PRS of.self
    Your pancakes break by themselves.
    b. 'n sonbril wat outomaties verkleur
    (a) sunglasses which.REL automatically discolour.PRS
    sunglasses which discolour automatically
    VivA-KPO
    b.' Lucinda verkleur net so 'n klein bietjie.
    Lucinda discolour.PRS just such a little bit
    Lucinda loses colour just a little bit.
    VivA-KPO
    b.'' Bewondering verkleur sy oë na helder silwer.
    admiration discolour.PRS his eyes to bright silver
    Admiration makes his eyes change colour to bright silver.
    VivA-KPO
    b.''' 'n Ligte blos verkleur haar satynsagte vel.
    a light flush discolour.PRS her satin.soft skin
    A light flush makes her satin soft skin change colour.
    VivA -KPO

    Intransitives with agentive subjects are excluded as a source of middle constructions as such constructions require non-agentive subjects:

    30
    Die leeus brul weer.
    the lions roar.PRS again
    The lions are roaring again.

    Sentences (31) and (32) below have all the makings of middle constructions. (31) is ambiguous between active and middle voice for semantic reasons: The thematic roles of agent and instrument, both of which may describe the subject die mes the knife, are both sufficiently agentive to weaken the required contrast between a middle verb and its (non-agentive) subject. However, as (31) and (32) are excerpts from narratives in the historical present, they represent once-off events, which disqualifies them from being middle constructions. The subjects are simply involved in the action, as instrument in the case of (31) and as theme in the case of (32), and no information is divulged about characteristics of the mes knife and houtdeur wooden door, respectively.

    31
    Die mes sny maklik deur die kabelbinder.
    the knife cut.PRS easily through the cable.tie
    The knife cuts through the cable tie easily.
    NWU Lapa corpus 1.2
    32
    'n Dubbele houtdeur skuif maklik oop en sy staan in 'n reusevertrek.
    a double wood.door slide.PRS easily open and she stand.PRS in a giant.room
    A double wooden door slides open easily and she stands in a gigantic room.
    NWU Lapa corpus 1.2
    [+]Evaluative modification

    When an action is predicated to an entity, as typically happens in the middle construction, it may not be clear in what way the action is intended to qualify the subject referent. How is rye bread able to perform slicing, as in (33a), or a rural road able to drive, as in (33b)? Further qualification is usually required in the form of an evaluative modifier. The addition of maklik easily in (33ai) makes it clear that the bread is associated with ease of slicing, and lekker pleasantly in (33bi), indicates that the road makes for good driving.

    33
    a. *Die rogbrood sny.
    the rye.bread slice.PRS
    To mean: The rye bread can be sliced.
    a.' Die rogbrood sny maklik.
    the rye.bread slice.PRS easily
    The rye bread is easy to slice.
    b. *Die plaaspad ry.
    the farm.road drive.PRS
    To mean: It is possible to drive on the farm road.
    b.' Die plaaspad ry lekker.
    the farm.road drive.PRS pleasantly
    It is pleasant to drive on the farm road.

    An important distinction to be made is between modifiers relating the process to an implied experiencer, such as fantasties fantastic, in (34a), and those which merely modify the process, such as vinnig swiftly in (34b). Sometimes an ambiguity may arise, as maklik easily in (34c) may either refer to the user's experience of using the knife, or the knife's cutting ability.

    34
    a. Hierdie mes sny fantasties.
    this knife cut.PRS fantastically
    This knife is fantastic to cut with.
    b. Hierdie mes sny vinnig.
    this knife cut.PRS swiftly
    This knife cuts swiftly.
    c. Hierdie mes sny maklik.
    this knife cut.PRS easily
    This knife is easy to use, or: This knife cuts easily.

    In some cases the mere success (or failure) of the action expressed by the verb vis-à-vis the entity it is predicated to is sufficient to characterise the entity in question. The relevance of the verb as qualifier is enhanced by positive or negative polarity (wel indeed or nie not) or by simply placing emphasis on the verb. What is accomplished by the modifier goed well in (35a), is also accomplished by merely stressing the verb, as in (35ai). In (35b) and (35c) the polarity introduced by wel indeed, beslis definitely or emphasis is sufficient to bring about a middle interpretation, as are nooit never in (35d) and ook also in (35di).

    35
    a. Kaartjies vir die Drienasiereeks verkoop goed.
    tickets for the Three Nations Series sell.PRS well
    Tickets for the Three Nations Series are selling well.
    TK
    a.' Hierdie kaartjies verkóóp.
    these tickets sell.PRS
    These tickets are selling well.
    b. Daardie deur sluit wel.
    that door lock.PRS indeed
    That door can indeed be locked.
    b.' Daardie deur slúit.
    that door lock.PRS
    That door can indeed be locked.
    c. Jou ou pen skryf beslis.
    your old pen write.PRS definitely
    Your old pen can definitely write.
    c.' Jou ou pen skryf!
    your old pen write.PRS
    Your old pen is definitely writing.
    d. Kwaliteitsporselein beskadig nooit.
    quality.porcelain damage.PRS never
    Quality porcelain never gets damaged.
    TK
    d.' Kwaliteitsporselein beskadig ook.
    quality.porcelain damage.PRS also
    Quality porcelain also gets damaged.
    [+]The experiencer

    Given its function as characteriser or qualifier, the middle construction always implies an experiencer. This role is overtly present in (36a) and (38b). In (36a) vir Jan for Jan points to Jan's evaluation of the truth of the statement, i.e. Jan is convinced of the truth of the characterisation embodied in the proposition. In (36b) the characterisation of the music is rendered subject to Jeanette's opinion.

    36
    a. Hierdie boek lees vir Jan makliker as die vorige.
    this book read.PRS for Jan easier than the previous
    Jan finds this book easier to read than the previous one.
    b. Dié tipe musiek luister.PRS vir Jeanette lekker.
    this type music listen for Jeanette pleasant
    Jeanette finds this kind of music pleasant to listen to.
    [+]Constructional variants

    The passive
    Middle constructions differ from the passives, as in (37a) and (37b), in not having passive verbal periphrasis as well as in precluding reference to an agent in the form of an agentive deur-phrase, as in (37ai) and (37bi). The latter constraint follows from the fact that middle constructions are focused on characterisation and qualification rather than on action stemming from an agent.

    37
    a. Die ratte word maklik (deur Marie) gewissel.
    the gears be.AUX.PASS.PRS easily (by Marie) change.PST.PTCP
    The gears are easily changed by Marie.
    a.' Die ratte wissel maklik (*deur Marie).
    the gears change.PRS easily (by Marie)
    The gears are easily changed by Marie.
    b. Sandgrond word baie maklik (deur bouers) gekompakteer.
    sand.oil be.AUX.PASS.PRS very easily (by builders) compact.PST.PTCP
    Sandy soil can be compacted (by builders) very easily.
    b.' Sandgrond ... kompakteer baie maklik (*deur bouers).
    sand.soil compact.PRS very easily (by builders),
    Sandy soil can be compacted (by builders) very easily.
    VivA-KPO

    The thematic relationship of a middle construction subject to the verb is similar to that of a passive construction subject to the verbal periphrasis, cf. (38a), where dit it refers anaphorically to pewter. Beskadig damage appears in a passive construction in (38b), and as transitive verb in (38c). In example (38b) beskadig is used in a passive construction incorporating the modal verb kan can. Kan's reference to 'capability' or 'ability' suggests a semantic correlation with the middle use of beskadig through its constructional meaning of 'characterisation'.

    38
    a. Pewter beskadig maklik as dit nie versigtig hanteer word nie.
    pewter damage.PRS easily if.CNJ it not carefully handle.PST.PTCP be.AUX.PASS.PRS PTCL.NEG
    Pewter is easily damaged if it is not handled with care.
    TK
    b. Plastiek bied goeie sig maar kan maklik beskadig word.
    plastic offer.PRS good vision but.CNJ can.AUX.MOD easily damage.PST.PTCP be.AUX.PASS.INF
    Plastic offers good vision, but can be damaged easily.
    VivA-KPO
    c. Sigaretrook beskadig die lugblasies.
    sigarette.smoke damage.PRS the follicles
    Sigarette smoke damages the follicles.
    VivA-KPO

    Topicalisation
    The middle construction is closely related to transitive or prepositional object constructions with topicalised subjects. Topicalised constructions resemble the middle construction in that in both cases the focus on a preposed constituent invites characterisation by the rest of the proposition. The use of the nominativehy he in (39ai) and sy she in (39bi) makes it clear that sandgrond sandy soil and hierdie mes this knife are topicalised objects rather than middle subjects. The stranded preposition mee with in (39bi), which would be excluded in a middle construction, indicates that constructions such as (39ai) and (39bi) cannot be considered to be middle constructions, in spite of the fact that the topicalised object is in a way also qualified by the rest of the sentence. However, when topicalisation is reversed and the subject is clearly agentive, as in (39c) and (39ci), these sentences are more likely to express action issuing from the subject referent than having a characterising or qualifying function.

    39
    a. Sandgrond kompakteer maklik.
    sand.soil compact.PRS easily
    Sandy soil is easy to compact.
    a.' Sandgrond kompakteer hy (die bouer) maklik.
    sand.soil compact.PRS he (the builder) easily
    He (the builder) compacts sandy soil easily.
    b. Hierdie mes sny lekker.
    this knife cut.PRS nicely
    This knife cuts nicely.
    b.' Hierdie mes sny sy lekker mee.
    this knife cut.PRS she nicely with
    She enjoys cutting with this knife.
    c. Hy kompakteer.PRS sandgrond maklik.
    he compact sand.soil easily
    He compacts sandy soil easily.
    c.' Sy sny.PRS lekker met hierdie mes.
    she cut nicely with this knife
    She enjoys cutting with this knife.

    "Maklik/moeilik om te V" (Easy/hard to please)
    Another construction resembling the middle construction, is the Maklik/moeilik om te V Easy/hard to V, construction, the subject of which is non-agentive as in the case of middle verbs:

    40
    Die program is maklik om te installeer.
    the program is easy for.COMP PTCL.INF install.INF
    The program is easy to install.
    VivA-KPO

    In this construction the verb usually expresses a useful outcome or desired result, cf.

    41
    a. E-boeke is maklik om te lees.
    E-books be.PRS easy for.COMP PTCL.INF read.INF
    E-books are easy to read.
    b. ?Pewter is maklik om te beskadig.
    pewter is easy for.COMP PTCL.INF damage.INF
    Pewter is easy to damage.

    As used in (42a), breek break seems a useful action and breek readily functions as middle verb. In (42b) breek is degenerative, and a middle interpretation unlikely.

    42
    a. Sandsteen bou maklik want dit breek maklik.
    sandstone build.PRS easily because.CNJ it break.PRS easily
    Sandstone is easy to build with as it breaks easily.
    b. Bros bene breek maklik en groei moeiliker weer aan.
    brittle bones break.PRS easily and grow.PRS with.greater.difficulty again on
    Brittle bones break easily and join again with greater difficulty.
    TK

    -baar-derivations
    Adjectival derivations with the suffix -baar -able, as in leesbaar readable and invulbaar able to be filled out closely resemble the usage of lees read and invul fill out as middle verbs:

    43
    a. maklik leesbare feiteblaaie
    easily readable spreadsheets
    spreadsheets which can be read easily
    VivA-KPO
    a.' Die feiteblaaie lees.PRS maklik.
    the spreadsheets read easily
    The spreadsheets are easy to read.
    b. 'n maklik invulbare vormtestament
    an easily completeable form.will
    a will form which is easy to complete
    VivA-KPO
    b.' Die vormtestament vul maklik in.
    the form.will fill.PRS easily out
    The will form is easy to fill out.

    Several of the -baar derivations listed by Combrink and Dodds (1984) Combrink and Dodds seem amenable to being used in middle constructions. In many cases these verbs may be typified as 'producing a useful or desired result in an appropriate context'. This, in turn, may indicate that middle verbs are, in their characterising or qualifying function, resultative in nature. Examples: oorreedbaar able to be convinced, smeebaar forgeable, verskuifbaar moveable, ploegbaar ploughable, skeibaar separable, drinkbaar drinkable, verhandelbaar negotiable, telbaar countable, herstelbaar reparable, verkoopbaar sellable, etc.

    Attributive present participles
    Verbs may function as middle verbs when attributively used as present participles, e.g.

    44
    Die skoene loop lekker: die lekker lopende skoene
    the shoes walk.PRS comfortably: the comfortably walking.PRS.PTCP.ATTR shoes
    The shoes are comfortable to walk with: the shoes comfortable to walk with

    This format is, however, seldom used, as noun phrases are not easily extended to include an evaluative modifier, such as lekker in the above, and because the head is typically in an agentive relationship with the participle. A middle interpretation is possible in the following cases:

    45
    a. Die fiets ry lekker: 'n lekker ryende fiets
    the bicycle ride.PRS comfortably: a comfortably ride.PRS.PTCP.ATTR bicycle
    The bicycle is comfortable to ride on: a bicyle which rides comfortably
    b. Die vliegtuig hanteer maklik: 'n maklik hanterende vliegtuig
    the aeroplane handle.PRS easily: an easily handle.PRS.PTCP.ATTR aeroplane
    The aeroplane is easy to handle: an aeroplane which is easily handled
    c. Die geweer skiet akkuraat: 'n akkuraat skietende geweer
    the rifle shoot.PRS accurately: an accurately shoot.PRS.PTCP.ATTR rifle
    The rifle shoots accurately: a rifle which shoots accurately
    d. Die huise verkoop goed: die goed verkopende huise
    the houses.PRS sell well: the well sell.PRS.PTCP.ATTR houses
    The houses sell well: the houses which sell well

    Verkoop sell is one of a few verbs that may be used as a middle verb without an evaluative modifier. Therefore:

    46
    Die huise verkoop: die verkopende huise (is in die minderheid)
    the houses sell.PRS: the sell.PRS.PTCP.ATTR houses (be.PRS in the minority)
    The houses are selling: the houses which sell (are in the minority)

    The following seem doubtful:

    47
    a. Die ratte wissel: ?die maklik wisselende ratte
    the gears change.PRS: the easily change.PRS.PTCP.ATTR gears
    The gears change: the gears which change easily
    b. Die motor bestuur maklik: ?die maklik besturende motor
    the car drive.PRS easily: the easily drive.PRS.PTCP.ATTR car
    The car is easy to drive: the car which is easy to drive

    Attributive past participles
    Middle verbs in attributive past participle constructions are restricted to instances where the head is in an object or prepositional object relation to the action expressed by the participle, e.g.

    48
    a. Die huise verkoop goed: die goed verkoopte huise
    the houses sell.PRS well: the well sell.PST.PTCP.ATTR houses
    The houses sell well: the houses which were sold well
    b. Die bome verplant maklik: die maklik verplante bome
    the trees transplant.PRS easily: the easily transplant.PST.PTCP.ATTR trees
    The trees are easily transplanted: the trees which were easily transplanted
    c. Die boek lees maklik: 'n maklik gelese/geleeste boek
    the book read.PRS easily: an easily read.PST.PTCP.ATTR book
    The book is easy to read: a book which was read easily

    However, while the head of the participial construction may reflect the subject-verb relationship of the middle construction, the adverbial qualifier of the former relates differently to the head. In the middle construction in (48a) the evaluative modifier goed qualifies the sellability of the houses (hinting at the number of houses sold), whereas goed in the participial construction suggests that the houses were sold at a good price. While maklik in the participial construction in (48b) and (48c) modifies the action of transplanting and reading, respectively, it mainly characterises bome and boek in respect to verbal action in the middle construction. While the middle verbs verkoop, verplant and lees in (48a), (48b) and (48c), respectively, qualify their subjects, the corresponding participles mainly describe completed action with the head undergoing the action. This accords with Butler's (2016:83) view "that the participle form only profiles all the states of the process as they unfold". It seems that 'n maklik gelese/geleeste boek a book which was read easily may be understood both in the participial sense of 'a book that was easy to read', with a perfective interpretation matching the middle function, and in the passive sense of 'a book that is easily read'. The verb lees read differs from verkoop sell and verplant transplant in being aspectually durative, while they are terminative.

    The reflexive middle
    The reflexive middle construction ((49a) in Dutch (cf. Broekhuis et al. 2015) is mainly used in Afrikaans in reflexive constructions with human referents, as in (49b) and (49c).

    49
    a. De oplossing laat zich gemakkelijk raden.
    the solution let.LINK itself.REFL easily guess.INF
    It is easy to guess what the solution is.
    b. Gertjan laat hom teësinnig ompraat.
    Gertjan let.LINK him.REFL reluctantly persuade.INF
    Reluctantly, Gertjan allows himself to be persuaded.
    TK
    c. Karl laat hom nie so maklik afsit nie.
    Karl let.LINK him.REFL not so easily dissuade.INF PTCL.NEG
    Karl is not dissuaded so easily.

    The impersonal middle
    The Dutch impersonal middle(cf. Broekhuis et al. 2015), as in (50a), is not used in Afrikaans.

    50
    a. Het zit gemakkelijk op deze stoel.
    it sit.PRS easily on this chair
    This chair is easy to sit on.
    b. *Dit sit gemaklik op hierdie stoel.
    it sit.PRS easily on this chair
    To mean: This chair is easy to sit on.
    References
    • Broekhuis, Hans, Corver, Norbert & Vos, Riet2015Syntax of Dutch. Verbs and verb phrasesComprehensive grammar resourcesAmsterdam University Press
    • Broekhuis, Hans, Corver, Norbert & Vos, Riet2015Syntax of Dutch. Verbs and verb phrasesComprehensive grammar resourcesAmsterdam University Press
    • Butler, A2016Die deelwoord as 'n ánder vorm van die werkwoord.Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe5681-101,
    • Combrink, J.G.H. & Dodds, R.McD1984Retrograde woordeboek van Afrikaans.
    • De Villiers, M1975Die semantiek van Afrikaans.HAUM
    • Kavanagh, K1999South African Concise Oxford DictionaryOxfordOxford University Press
    • Van Schoor, J.L1983Die grammatika van standaard-Afrikaans.Lex Patria
    About this article
    Author(s): Jac Conradie
    Category: Afrikaans Syntax
    Keywords: active voiceagentagentiveaspectdurativeergativeevaluative modifierexperiencerimpersonal middleinstrument,locativemiddle voicenominativepassive voicepatientperfectiveprepositional objectreflexive middleresultativetemporaltenseterminativethemetopicalisedusurpation
    Version: 1.0, May 2020
    Version history:
    version editor(s) date remarks
    1.0 Jac Conradie May 2020
    This is a beta version.
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