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    -lik
    quickinfo

    The suffix -lik derives adjectives from verbs (begripe to understand > begryplik understandable), nouns (minske human > minsklik human) adjectives (siik ill > syklik sickly), prepositions (foar for, in favour > foarlik precocious) and a numeral (ien one > ienlik single). There are a few derivations of which the basic form is not recognizable anymore (*aak > aaklik unpleasant). All base types will be discussed in the sections below.

    When it is attached to transitive verbs, the suffix -lik has the same function as -ber: both add a passive meaning and a modal meaning "possible to be {verb}-ed"; they are in competition with each other.

    When it is attached to nouns, the suffix -lik has the same semantic function as the suffixes -eftich, -ich, and -sk: "resembling {noun}" (minsk human > minsklik human) or "having a lot of {noun}" (romte space > romtlik spatial).

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    [+]Verb as base

    Derivations with -lik from transitive verbs can have a modal-passive meaning (begripe to understand > begryplik understandable, erve to inherit > erflik heritable and oannimme to accept > oannimlik plausible). For example, in begryplike preek means a sermon that is understandable.

    Derivations with -lik from transitive verbs can also have a meaning of necessity (bespotte to ridicule > bespotlik ridiculous, winskje to desire> winsklik desirable and ferachte to despise > ferachtlik despicable). For example, in bespotlike keardel means a despicable bloke.

    With some intransitive and ergative verbs as their base, -lik derivations can have a modal-active meaning in sentences like the following:

    1
    Dy fisk is stjerlik
    that fish is mortal
    That fish is mortal
    It drinken is bedjerlik
    the drink is perishable
    The drink is perishable

    An active meaning and a meaning of necessity occur in derivations like the following: begrutlik regrettable, muoilik touched, fertrietlik sadly, oandwaanlik touching and skriklik tempting. For example, in begrutlike man means a man that you have to feel regrets for.

    Some derivations with -lik which have a verb as base form have the non-modal meaning "with a tendency to {verb}". In this case, the suffix is comparable with the meaning of the suffixes -sk and -ich. Examples are boartsje to play > boartlik playful and bewege to move > beweechlik lively.

    [+]Noun as base

    When it is attached to nouns, the suffix -lik has the same semantic function as the suffixes -eftich, -ich, and -sk: "resembling {noun}" (minsk human > minsklik human) or "having a lot of {noun}" (romte space > romtlik spatial). Sometimes, the meaning is bleached to "related to {noun}". Examples are given in the table below:

    Table 1
    Base form Derivation
    amt office amtlik official
    tsjerke church tsjerklik ecclesiastical
    steat state steatlik stately
    saak business saaklik business(like)
    frou woman froulik female
    ear honour earlik honest
    skea damage skealik harmful
    noed concern noedlik worrisome
    god god godlik divine
    freon friend freonlik friendly
    bestek sense besteklik sensible
    hert hart hertlik hearty
    ôfgriis horror ôfgryslik horrible
    kristen Christian kristlik Christian
    noarden north noardlik northern
    [+]Adjective as base

    The suffix -lik can also derive adjectives from other adjectives. Here it is difficult to determine a clear semantic function of the suffix. Examples are given below:

    Table 2
    Base form Derivation
    leaf sweet leaflik sweet
    ryk rich ryklik copious
    gek crazy geklik funny
    goed good guodlik gentle
    fet fat fetlik fatty
    wiis wise wyslik wisely
    [+]Preposition as base

    The suffix -lik can also derive adjectives from a few prepositions. Examples are given below:

    Table 3
    Base form Derivation
    efter behind efterlik retarded
    yn in ynlik profound
    yn in inerlik internal
    ûnder under ûnderlik downward
    út out uterlik outward

    The formations mostly have a metaphorical meaning. In ut out > úterlik outward and yn in > inerlik one's inner self we find the linking element -er-. The words inerlik one's inner self and uterlik looks can also be converted to a noun.

    [+]Numeral as base

    The suffix -lik can also have a numeral as base. This "pattern" is, however, restricted to only one numeral: ien one, from which can be formed ienlik single. Other numerals + -lik are ungrammatical: twa two > *twalik, acht eight > *achtlik. The same holds for numeral+-sum, which can also only be added to ien one.

    [+]Opaque base

    There are quite some words ending in -lik that do not have a base form which is an existing word:

    Table 4
    Derivation
    noflik pleasant
    ridlik reasonable
    dalik later
    pitertuerlik strange
    binlik fair
    heislik awful
    behyplik difficult
    ûnhjirmlik unbearable
    maklik easy
    The word maklik gets a linking element -ge- when it is preceded by the prefix ûn-: ûn-ge-maklik uncomfortable. Possibly, this form is related to gemak ease.

    [+]Phonological properties

    If the base is a particle verb, the stress moves from the particle to the verb, as in: TApasse to apply > taPASlik applicable.

    If the base form ends in /-en/, this is truncated before -lik (noarden north > noardlik northern), and if the base form ends in schwa, this is also truncated before -lik (romte space > romtlik spatial).

    When -lik [lək] is added to the base form, the voiced fricative of that base becomes voiceless: gerive - geryflik [ɡəri:və - ɡəriflək] to assist - comfortable and drage - draachlik [dra:gə - draxlək] to bear - bearable. The only two exceptions to this rule are mooglik possible and deeglik reliable, of which the base forms *moog and *deeg are not recognizable anymore. For more phonological details about this devoicing, see the topic on the phonological domain of Final Devoicing.

    To the base form ending in /-ng/ [ŋ], a /k/ is added: tagong [taɡoŋ] access > tagonklik [tagoŋklək] accessible, oarsprong [o.əsproŋ] origin > oarspronklik [o.əsproŋklək] original, kening [ke:nɪŋ] king > keninklik [ke:nɪŋklək] royal. A comparable insertion of /k/ occurs in the formation of diminutives.

    After base forms ending in /n/ or /m/ one sometimes sees the insertion of /t/. Examples are: eigen own > eigentlik actually, iepen open > iepentlik openly, earm poor > earmtlik poorly.

    extra
    Dutch influence

    Some language users insert a schwa between the stem and -lik. Thus next to deeglik reliable one encounters degelik reliable, or one sees goddelik divine instead of godlik divine. This habit must be ascribed to influence from Dutch, where the corresponding suffix is -(e)lijk.

    [+]Morphological potential

    Adjectives ending in -lik can be nominalized with -heid: freonlikheid friendliness, oarspronklikheid originality, tapaslikheid applicability. Instead of -heid, -ens is often used to convey distance from Dutch. For example: freonlikens friendliness, oarspronklikens originality, tapaslikens applicability. See for more details the topic on these suffixes.

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    Literature

    This article is based on Hoekstra (1998:134-135). For the verbal bases, Van der Meer (1989) makes a comparison with the suffix -ber.

    References
    • Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
    • Meer, Geart van der1989Oer -ber, -lik, -eftich, -ich, -erich, -sk en -sum : (earste stik: -ber en -lik ferlike)Us wurk: tydskrift foar Frisistyk3843-54
    About this article
    Author(s): Siebren Dyk, Joke Weening
    Category: Frisian Morphology
    Keywords: adjectivederivationsuffixlinkingmodalitypassiveactivetransitiveergative
    Version: 1.0, April 2016
    Version history:
    version editor(s) date remarks
    1.0 Siebren Dyk, Joke Weening April 2016
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