- Dutch
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
-
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
-
- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
-
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Pansyllabicconstraints refer to phonotactic restrictions of segment co-occurrences or segment sequences whose elements belong to different constituents within a syllable.
Pansyllabic constraints(Cairns 1988:229) are constraints which are related to phonotactic restrictions of segment co-occurrences or segment sequences within a syllable. They refer to restrictions other than the ones related to syllable constituents, such as onset, rhyme and coda. They deal with the compatibility of consonants and vowels or the recurrence of certain consonants in different positions within one syllable. It is assumed that these restrictions apply due to the individual segments being too similar (OCP effects).
As illustrated in table 1 (adapted from Cohen et al. 1972:92, each singleton consonant in onset position can be followed by any vowel of the Dutch vowel inventory, apart from four combinations. The combinations /*ʋy/, /*ʋø/, /*ji/ and /*hə/ are not allowed in Dutch. Notice that schwa can only occur in unstressed syllables, whereas all other vowels can be found in stressed syllables as well.
| /i/ | /e/ | /y/ | /ø/ | /u/ | /o/ | /a/ | /ɪ/ | /ʏ/ | /ɛ/ | /ɑ/ | /ɔ/ | /ə/ | |
| /p/ | pier | peer | puur | peul | poel | pool | paal | pit | put | pet | pat | pot | (wim)per |
| /b/ | bier | beer | buur | beul | boet | boot | baat | bik | buk | bek | bak | bok | (zwab)ber |
| /t/ | tier | teer | tuur | teut | toen | toon | taal | til | tulp | tel | tal | tol | (be)ter |
| /d/ | dier | deel | duur | deur | doel | dool | daal | dik | dun | dek | dal | dol | (a)dem |
| /k/ | kier | keer | kuur | keur | koer | koor | kaar | kin | kun | ken | kan | kon | (te)ken |
| /f/ | fier | fee | fuut | feut | foe(ter) | fooi | faam | fiks | fut | fel | fat | fop | (oe)fen |
| /v/ | vier | veer | vuur | veu(len) | voer | voor | vaar | vil | vul | vel | val | vol | (ze)ven |
| /s/ | sier | safe | (re)çu | (mas)seur | soes | so(ber) | saai | sip | suf | cent | sap | sop | (wis)sel |
| /z/ | zier | zeer | zuur | zeul | zoel | zool | zaal | zit | zulk | zet | zat | zot | (no)zem |
| /x/ɣ/ | gier | geel | guur | geul | goed | goot | gaas | gil | gul | geld | gal | gold | (ze)gel |
| /h/ | hier | heer | huur | heul | hoed | hoog | haag | hit | huls | hel | hal | hol | - |
| /m/ | mier | meer | muur | meug | moet | moot | maat | milt | mul | meld | mal | mol | (zo)mer |
| /n/ | nier | neef | nu | neus | noest | nood | naad | nis | nut | net | nap | nok | (zo)ne |
| /l/ | lied | leed | lu(ren) | leuk | loens | loog | laag | lig | lucht | leg | lach | log | (veu)len |
| /r/ | riet | reeds | ru(ne) | reuk | roet | rood | raad | rist | rust | rest | ras | ros | (we)reld |
| /ʋ/ | wied | weet | - | - | woest | woog | waag | wil | wulp | wel | wal | wol | (klu)wen |
| /j/ | - | je(gens) | ju(bel) | jeuk | joel | jool | jaar | jicht | juk | jek(ker) | jas | jok | (ma)jem |
Typological studies (Kawasaki 1982, Janson 1986) have found that languages tend to avoid sequences such as /w/ + round vowel (e.g. /wu/) and /j/ + front vowel (e.g. /ji/), in which a glide is followed by a vowel that is identical in place of articulation and similar in manner of articulation (relatively little or no constriction in the oral tract). As a consequence, the occurrence of these adjacent segments is prohibited by restrictions based on the OCP(Goldsmith 1976). It can be assumed that a similar argument rules out the sequences /ʋ/ + front rounded A-class vowel, i.e. /*ʋy/, /*ʋø/, and /j/ + high front A-class vowel, i.e. /*ji/, in Dutch. Notice that the sequences /ʋu/ and /ʋœy/ are permitted in Dutch (e.g. woest /ʋust/ wild and wuiven /ʋœyvən/ to wave), as well as any combination of /ʋ/ or /j/ with any B-class vowel.
Another banned sequence in Dutch is /h/ followed by schwa. Both segments /h/ and schwa lack any supralaryngeal specification, i.e. they are not specified for place of articulation. According to Booij (1995:42, citing C. Gussenhoven) this phenomenon is the result of a general place constraint:
This constraint predicts that syllables like /ə/, /hə/ and /hət/ (with underlying schwa) are impossible, whereas a syllable like /ət/ is allowed. The Dutch data confirm these predictions.
Another type of co-occurrence restrictions refers to the recurrence of liquids within the same syllable. The following examples (cf. Booij 1995:43) illustrate the fact that Dutch allows for syllables of the type /lVl/ if and only if the vowel V is a B-class vowel. In contrast, syllables of the type /rVr/ are only possible if and only if the vowel V is an A-class vowel. In tables 2 and 3 additional examples are provided to show that this phenomenon is not the result of co-occurrence restrictions on either onset + nucleus or nucleus + coda sequence.
| /lVl/ | ||
| lil /lɪl/ gelatine | ||
| lul /lʏl/ penis | ||
| lel /lɛl/ lobe | ||
| lal /lɑl/ to jabber | ||
| lol /lɔl/ fun | ||
| liel /lil/ | but cf. lief /liv/ lovely; | wiel /ʋil/ wheel, gear |
| luul /lyl/ | but cf. Luuk /lyk/ (proper name); | (mole)cuul /mo.lə.kyl/ molecule |
| leel /lel/ | but cf. leek /lek/ layman; | keel /kel/ throat |
| laal /lal/ | but cf. laat /lat/ late; | taal /tal/ language |
| lool /lol/ | but cf. loop /lop/ run; | kool /kol/ cabbage |
| loel /lul/ | but cf. loer /lur/ trick; | doel /dul/ objective, target |
| /rVr/ | ||
| Ruurd /ryrt/ (proper name) | ||
| raar /rar/ strange | ||
| roer /rur/ rudder | ||
| rir /rɪr/ | but cf. rIl /rɪl/ crease; | Dirk /dɪrk/ (proper name) |
| rur /rʏr/ | but cf. rul /rʏl/ loose; | pur(per) /pʏr.pər/ purple |
| rer /rɛr/ | but cf. rel /rɛl/ riot; | ver /ʋɛr/ distant |
| rar /rɑr/ | but cf. ram /rɑm/ ram; | kar /kɑr/ cart |
| ror /rɔr/ | but cf. rok /rɔk/ skirt; | por /pɔr/ stab, poke |
A phenomenon similar to the one described above for liquids also holds for glides. In Dutch, two identical glides cannot co-occur in one syllable. Notice that glides can generally only followA-class vowels. The only exception to the co-occurrence restriction is the word weeuw /ʋeʋ/, a contraction of weduwe /ʋedyʋə/ widow. Table (1) above provides examples which illustrate that for some of those onset + nucleus sequences additional co-occurrence restrictions apply. The second columns of tables (4) and (5) contain examples of the particular vowel + glide sequences, which are sometimes also called pseudo diphthongs.
| jiej /jij/ | |
| juuj /jyj/ | |
| jeej /jej/ | |
| jaaj /jaj/ | but cf. saai /saj/ boring |
| jooj /joj/ | but cf. kooi /koj/ cage |
| joej /juj/ | but cf. loei /luj/ monster, whopper, cracker |
| wiew /ʋiʋ/ | but cf. nieuw /niʋ/ new |
| wuuw /ʋyʋ/ | but cf. (barbe)cue /bɑr.bə.kjuʋ/ grill |
| weeuw /ʋeʋ/ | cf. also leeuw /leʋ/ lion |
| waaw /ʋaʋ/ | |
| woow /ʋoʋ/ | |
| woew /ʋuʋ/ |
- 1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- 1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- 1988Phonotactics, markedness and lexical representationPhonology5209-236
- 1972Fonologie van het Nederlands en het Fries. Inleiding tot de moderne klankleerMartinus Nijhoff
- 1976An overview of segmental phonologyLinguistic Analysis223-68
- 1986Cross-linguistic trends in the frequency of CV sequencesPhonology Yearbook3179-195
- 1982An acoustical basis for universal constraints on sound sequencesUniversity of California, BerkeleyThesis
