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- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
-
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
-
- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
-
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Onset: singleton consonants
quickinfo
Any singleton consonant of the Dutch segment inventory can constitute an onset in Dutch, with the exception of the velar nasal /ŋ/.
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[+]General information and examples
Apart from the velar nasal, there are no restrictions on singleton consonants in onset position, neither word-initially nor word-medially, independent of whether the syllable is stressed or unstressed. In general, a single word-initial consonant may precede any vowel.
Table 1
| segment | word-initial & monosyllable | word-medial & stressed syllable | word-medial & unstressed syllable |
| stops: | |||
| /p/ | pen /pɛn/ pen | trompet /trɔm.pɛt/ trumpet | wimper /ʋɪm.pər/ lash |
| /b/ | boer /bur/ farmer | kabouter /ka.bɑu.tər/ gnome | album /ɑl.bʏm/ album |
| /t/ | tijd /tɛid/ time | patat /pa.tɑt/ potato chips | vector /vɛk.tɔr/ vector |
| /d/ | dag /dɑx/ day | radijs /ra.dɛis/ radish | saldo /sɑl.do/ balance |
| /k/ | kool /kol/ cabbage | orkest /ɔr.kɛst/ orchestra | iemker /im.kər/ beekeeper |
| /g/ (only in loan words) | goal (football term) | regatta /re.gɑta/ regatta | slogan /slo.gən/ slogan |
| fricatives: | |||
| /f/ | fiets /fits/ bicycle | plafond /pla.fɔn(d)/ ceiling | lucifer /ly.si.fər/ match |
| /v/ | vos /vɔs/ fox | ivoor /i.vor/ ebony | canvas /kɑn.vɑs/ canvas |
| /s/ | sok /sɔk/ sock | arseen /ɑr.sen/ arsenic | sesam /se.sɑm/ sesame |
| /z/ | zus /zʏs/ sister | rozijn /ro.zɛin/ raisin | perzik /pɛr.zɪk/ peach |
| /ʃ/ | sjaal /ʃal/ scarf | artisjok /ɑr.ti.ʃɔk/ artichoke | poncho /pɔn.ʃo/ poncho |
| /ʒ/ | jus /ʒy/(also [ʃy]) gravy | budget /bʏd.ʒɛt/ budget | stage /sta.ʒə/ internship |
| /x/ | geit /xɛit/ goat | figuur /fi.xyr/ figure | zegel /ze.xəl/ seal, stamp |
| /h/ | huis /hœys/ house | mihoen /mi.hun/ Chinese noodles | alcohol /ɑl.ko.hɔl/ alcohol |
| nasals: | |||
| /m/ | maan /man/ moon | kameel /ka.mel/ camel | kermis /kɛr.mɪs/ fair |
| /n/ | neus /nøs/ nose | planeet /pla.net/ planet | koning /ko.nɪŋ/ king |
| /ŋ/ | - | - | engel /ɛŋəl/ angel |
| liquids: | |||
| /l/ | lak /lɑk/ varnish | piloot /pi.lot/ pilot | eland /e.lɑnd/ elk |
| /r/ | rat /rɑt/ rat | piraat /pi.rat/ pirate | wereld /ʋe.rəld/ world |
| glides: | |||
| /ʋ/ | wurm /ʋʏrm/ worm | karwats /kɑr.ʋɑts/ whip | kluwen /kly.ʋən/ knot |
| /j/ | jaar /jar/ year | triljoen /trɪl.jun/ trillion | ketjap /kɛt.jɑp/ soy sauce |
[+]The velar nasal constraint
The examples in the previous table illustrate that the distribution of the velar nasal differs from other Dutch consonants. The velar nasal /ŋ/ cannot constitute a word-initial singleton onset. However, the velar nasal can be found in onsets of word-medial syllables following B-class vowels as illustrated by the examples zwanger /zʋɑŋər/ pregnant and engel /ɛŋəl/ angel. Note that in all these cases the velar nasal occurs inter-vocalically, with the second vowel always being schwa (Kager 1986). According to Booij's (1995:36) analysis, the velar nasal is ambisyllabic, i.e. it belongs to the coda of the first syllable and the onset of the second syllable:
Figure 1
[click image to enlarge]
[+]Co-occurrence restrictions on singleton onsets & nuclei
Since onsets and nuclei form different constituents of a syllable, co-occurrence restrictions between segments in onset and nucleus positions are very rare. The only restrictions that can be found in Dutch are: /h/ may not precede schwa, i.e. /*hə/, and glides may not precede vowels that are either too similar or identical with respect to place of articulation, i.e. /*ji/, /*ʋy/ and /*ʋø/ (see also pansyllabic constraints). Notice that schwa can only occur in unstressed syllables, whereas all other vowels can be found in stressed and unstressed syllables.
Table 2
| /i/ | /e/ | /y/ | /ø/ | /u/ | /o/ | /a/ | /ɪ/ | /ʏ/ | /ɛ/ | /ɑ/ | /ɔ/ | /ə/ | |
| stops: | |||||||||||||
| /p/ | pier | peer | puur | peul | poel | pool | paal | pit | put | pet | pat | pot | (wim)per |
| /b/ | bier | beer | buur | beul | boet | boot | baat | bik | buk | bek | bak | bok | (zwab)ber |
| /t/ | tier | teer | tuur | teut | toen | toon | taal | til | tulp | tel | tal | tol | (be)ter |
| /d/ | dier | deel | duur | deur | doel | dool | daal | dik | dun | dek | dal | dol | (a)dem |
| /k/ | kier | keer | kuur | keur | koer | koor | kaar | kin | kun | ken | kan | kon | (te)ken |
| fricatives: | |||||||||||||
| /f/ | fier | fee | fuut | feut | foef | fooi | faam | fiks | fut | fel | fat | fop | (oe)fen |
| /v/ | vier | veer | vuur | veu(len) | voer | voor | vaar | vil | vul | vel | val | vol | (ze)ven |
| /s/ | sier | safe | (re)çu | (mas)seur | soes | so(ber) | saai | sip | suf | cent | sap | sop | (wis)sel |
| /z/ | zier | zeer | zuur | zeul | zoel | zool | zaal | zit | zulk | zet | zat | zot | (no)zem |
| /x/ɣ/ | gier | geel | guur | geul | goed | goot | gaas | gil | gul | geld | gal | gold | (ze)gel |
| /h/ | hier | heer | huur | heul | hoed | hoog | haag | hit | huls | hel | hal | hol | - |
| nasals: | |||||||||||||
| /m/ | mier | meer | muur | meug | moet | moot | maat | milt | mul | meld | mal | mol | (zo)mer |
| /n/ | nier | neef | nu | neus | noest | nood | naad | nis | nut | net | nap | nok | (zo)ne |
| liquids: | |||||||||||||
| /l/ | lied | leed | lu(ren) | leuk | loens | loog | laag | lig | lucht | leg | lach | log | (veu)len |
| /r/ | riet | reeds | ru(ne) | reuk | roet | rood | raad | rist | rust | rest | ras | ros | (we)reld |
| glides: | |||||||||||||
| /ʋ/ | wied | weet | - | - | woest | woog | waag | wil | wulp | wel | wal | wol | (klu)wen |
| /j/ | - | je(gens) | ju(bel) | jeuk | joel | jool | jaar | jicht | juk | jek(ker) | jas | jok | (ma)jem |
(table adapted from Cohen et al. 1972:92)
extra
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According to Booij (1995) and Gussenhoven (1999), many Standard Dutch speakers in the west of the Netherlands no longer pronounce the voicing contrast between the fricatives /f/ and /v/ in word-initial positions. As a result, in this area words like vos /vɔs/ fox are often pronounced with the initial voiceless fricative. Booij (1995) and Trommelen (1984) argue that a similar development can be found for the underlyingly velar fricatives /x, ɣ/, whose articulations merge into the voiceless uvular fricative [χ].
References
- 1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- 1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- 1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- 1972Fonologie van het Nederlands en het Fries. Inleiding tot de moderne klankleerMartinus Nijhoff
- 1999DutchIPA HandbookCambridge University Press45-47
- 1986Schwa, Syllables and Extrametricality in DutchThe Linguistic Review5197-221
- 1984The Syllable in DutchDordrechtForis
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