- Dutch
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
-
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
-
- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
-
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
The topic of this section is Progressive Voice Assimilation in connection with a closed set of function words, all of which begin with the voiced coronal plosive /d/. Take the sentence men wit noait wat dan mooglik is one can never tell what is possible then. The word sequence wat dan /vɔt dɔn/ what then is realized as [vɔtɔn], in which [t]'s voicelessness results from assimilation (and [t]'s singleness from degemination: [vɔtɔn] < [vɔttɔn] < [vɔtdɔn]).
There is a small set of function words which begin with the voiced coronal plosive /d/ (henceforth: /d/-words); see the overview in (1):
The function words which begin with /d/ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Definite article | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de | /də/ | the (in combination with a singular noun (de-word) or a plural noun) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Demonstrative pronouns | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dat | /dɔt/ | that (in combination with a singular noun (it-word), also in nominal use) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dy | /di/ | that (in combination with a singular noun (de-word), also in nominal use); those (also in nominal use) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dit | /dɪt/ | this (in combination with a singular noun (it-word), also in nominal use) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dizze | /dɪzə/ | this (in combination with a singular noun (de-word), also in nominal use); these (also in nominal use) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | Relative pronouns | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dat | /dɔt/ | that, which; who, whom | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
datsto | /dɔt+st+do:/ | that you, which you; whom you | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
datste | /dɔt+st+də/ | that you, which you; whom you | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
datst | /dɔt+st/ | that you, which you; whom you | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dy't | /di+t/ | that, which; who, whom | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dy'tsto | /di+t+st+do:/ | that you, which you; whom you | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dy'tste | /di+t+st+də/ | that you, which you; whom you | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dy'tst | /di+t+st/ | that you, which you; whom you | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
d. | Personal pronouns | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
do | /do:/ | you (subject form, singular, familiar) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dû | /du/ | you (subject form, singular, familiar) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dy | /di/ | you (object form, singular, familiar) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dij | /dɛj/ | you (object form, singular, familiar) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
e. | Possessive pronouns | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dyn | /din/ | your | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dines | /dinəs/ | yours | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dinen | /dinən/ | yours | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dinent | /dinənt/ | yours | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
f. | Adverbs | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
der | /dər/ | there (in existential constructions); as part of a pronominal adverb) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dêr | /dɛ:r/ | there; as part of a pronominal adverb) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dus | /døs/ | so, therefore, then | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dan | /dɔn/ | then (referring to the future) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
doe | /du/ | then (referring to the past) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
doch(s) | /dɔx(s)/ | nevertheless, still, yet, all the same |
Usually, word-initial /d/ triggers regressive voice assimilation of a preceding (voiceless) plosive (see regressive voice assimilation: type 1). This may also hold for the /d/ of the words in (1). However, if the latter are in the appropriate syntactic environment and if they are preceded by a voiceless obstruent, the initial /d/ may show up as voiceless or, put differently, it may undergo progressive voice assimilation. Examples of this devoicing after a plosive are given in (2):
Examples of the devoicing of the /d/ of /d/-words after a plosive | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | de | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hy krijt de bus út de kast | [krɛjtə] | [*krɛjdə] | he gets the drum out of the cupboard | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
omdat de trein in oere fertraging hie | [omdɔtə] | [*omdɔdə] | because the train had a delay of an hour | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik pak de bus | [paktə] | [*paɡdə] | I take the bus | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik skop de bal deryn | [skoptə] | [*skobdə] | I kick the ball into the goal | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | der | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wannear't der praat wurdt | [vɔnɪətər] | [*vɔnɪədər] | when people talk (about it) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik begryp der wat langer wat minder fan | [bəɡriptər] | [*bəɡribdər] | I understand (it) less and less | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
omdat ik der wat langer wat minder fan begryp | [ɪktər] | [*?ɪɡdər] | because I understand (it) less and less | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | dat | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
witst wol wat dat wurd betsjut? | [vɔtɔt] | [*vɔdɔt] | do you know what that word means? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wat komt dat op 'e spieren oan! | [komtɔt] | [*komdɔt] | what a lot of muscle that needs! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hy hold dat foar himsels | [ho:tɔt] | [*ho:dɔt] | he kept that for himself | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
haw ík dat sein? | [ɪktɔt] | [ɪɡdɔt] | did Í say that? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
haw ik dát sein? | [ɪktɔt] | [ɪɡdɔt] | did I say thát? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
d. | dat | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
it praat dat er altyd hat | [pra:tɔt] | [*pra:dɔt] | the things that/which he always talks about | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
it skip datsto/datste/datst besjoen hast | [skɪptɔst{o:/ə}] | [skɪbdɔst{o:/ə}] | the ship that/which you have been looking at | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
e. | dy | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sok praat past dy man net | [pɔsti] | [*pɔzdi] | it ill befits that man to talk like that | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik wit net wat dy mannen besielet | [vɔti] | [*vɔdi] | I do not know what has come over those men | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
op dy dyk wurdt meastal te hurd riden | [opti] | [?obi] | on that road people use to drive too fast | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
út dy beker moatst net drinke | [yti] | [?ydi] | you shouldn't drink from that mug | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik drink dy beker yn ien swolch leech | [drɪŋkti] | [drɪŋɡdi] | I empty that mug in one drain/draught | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hat Sjoerd dy bekers net? | [sjuəti] | [*?sjuədi] | does Sjoerd happen to have those mugs? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
f. | dy't/dy'tsto/dy'tste/dy'tst | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de help dy't er krige hat | [hɛlptit] | [hɛlbdit] | the help that/which he got | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de gek dy't soks seit | [ɡɛktit] | [ɡɛɡdit] | the fool, idiot who says a thing like that | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de trip dy'tsto/dy'tste/dy'tst meitsje wolst | [trɪptist{o:/ə}] | [trɪbdist{o:/ə}] | the trip that/which you want to make | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de groep dy'tsto/dy'tste/dy'tst bestudearrest | [ɡruptist{o:/ə}] | [ɡrubdist{o:/ə}] | the group that/which you study | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
g. | dy/dij | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sok praat past dy net | [pɔsti] | [*pɔzdi] | it ill befits you to talk like that | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
at dy wat net dúdlik is, ... | [ɔti] | [*ɔdi] | if there is something you do not understand, ... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sil'k dy jûn ophelje? | [sɪkti] | [sɪɡdi] | shall I go and get you tonight? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sa ken'k dy hielendal net | [kɪŋkti] | [kɪŋɡdi] | I've never known you like this before | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dat Bauk díj net seach | [bɔwktɛj] | [bɔwɡdɛj] | I'm astonished that Bauk didn't see you | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
h. | dyn/dines | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
moatst net sa op dyn strepen stean | [optin] | [obdin] | do not get up on your high horse liket this | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wy hawwe al sa faak dyn sin dien | [fa:ktĩ] | [fa:ɡdĩ] | so many times we have done as you wished | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dêr komt dines ek al oan | [komtinəz] | [*komdinəz] | yours is drawing near (from that direction) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik wit net hoe't dines der útsjogge | [hutinəz] | [*?hudinəz] | I do not know what yours look like | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
i. | do/dû | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
híést do dat wier net sjoen? | [hiəsto:] | [*hiəzdo:] | hádn't you really seen that? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dat soest dó net witte! | [suəsto:] | [*suəzdo:] | as if you do not know! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
omdat do en ik dat dwaan moatte | [omdɔto:] | [?omdɔdo:] | because you and I will have to do that | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
pak dû ek mar ris mei oan | [paktu] | [paɡdu] | do make yourself useful | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
net altyd sa skerp, do! | [skɛrpto:] | [skɛrbdo:] | hey, you, do not always be that sharp/cutting | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
j. | dit | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hoe kómt dit no wer | [komtɪt] | [*komdɪt] | how on earth díd this happen? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hoe komt dít no wer | [komtɪt] | [*komdɪt] | how on earth did thís happen? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik wit net hoe't dit komt | [hutɪt] | [*hudɪt] | I do not know how this did happen | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hy griep dit oan om ... | [ɡriəptɪt] | [ɡriəbdɪt] | he seized this opportunity in order to ... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hy briek dit nije pak molke oan | [briəktɪt] | [briəɡdɪt] | he opened up this new carton of milk | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
k. | dizze | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wat dócht dizze man hjir | [doxtɪzə] | [*doɣdɪzə] | what is this man dóing here? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wat docht dízze man hjir | [doxtɪzə] | [*doɣdɪzə] | what is thís man doing here? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
gjinien wit wat dizze man hjir docht | [vɔtɪzə] | [*vɔdɪzə] | no one knows what this man is doing here | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hja begriep dizze sommen net | [bəɡriəptɪzə] | [bəɡriəbdɪzə] | she didn't understand these sums | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
pak dizze kâns | [paktɪzə] | [paɡdɪzə] | seize this opportunity | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
l. | dêr | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dat stiet dêr al jierren | [stjɪtɛ:r] | [*stjɪdɛ:r] | that has stood there for years | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wy witte hoe't dêr oer tocht wurdt | [hutɛ:r] | [*hudɛ:r] | we know what the general opinion about that is | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
it bliek dêr net mear te wêzen | [bliəktɛ:r] | [bliəɡdɛ:r] | it turned out that it was no longer there | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
m. | dus | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hy leit dus alle funksjes del | [lajtøs] | [*lajdøs] | so he resigns all his offices | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wat dus syn heit oangiet ... | [vɔtøs] | [*vɔdøs] | so as far as his father is concerned ... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik begryp dus dat ... | [bəɡriptøs] | [bəɡribdøs] | so I understand that ... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik pak dus alles yn | [paktøs] | [paɡdøs] | so I pack up everything | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
n. | dan | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hy rint dan alles om sa'n boek ôf | [rɪntɔn] | [*rɪndɔn] | he then searches high and low to find such a book | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
mar wát dan? | [vɔtɔn] | [*?vɔdɔn] | and whát then, and then whát? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
mar wat dán? | [vɔtɔn] | [*?vɔdɔn] | and what thén, and thén what? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
as Jaap dan ek kin ... | [ja:ptɔn] | [ja:bdɔn] | if it suits Jaap as well then ... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
as Bauk dan ek kin ... | [bɔwktɔn] | [bɔwɡdɔn] | if it suits Bauk as well then ... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
o. | doe | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
at doe ús heit der noch mar west hie | [ɔtu] | [*ɔdu] | if only my father would still have been alive by then | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wêrom hat er dat doe net sein? | [dɔtu] | [*?dɔdu] | why didn't he say that then? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hy griep doe de macht | [ɡriəptu] | [ɡriəbdu] | he seized power then | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dat liek doe wakkere moai | [liəktu] | [liəɡdu] | that seemed all so beautiful then | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
p. | dochs | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hy docht dochs faak net mei | [doxtɔxs] | [*doɣdɔxs] | yet, he hardly ever joins in | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hoe't dochs faak ... | [hutɔxs] | [*hudɔxs] | still, how often ... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
mar Jaap dochs foaral? | [ja:ptɔxs] | [ja:bdɔxs] | all the same, Jaap in particular? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
mar Bauk dochs foaral? | [bɔwktɔxs] | [bɔwɡdɔxs] | all the same, Bauk in particular? |
With the exception of dizze /dɪzə/, the /d/-words in (1) are monosyllabic.
The relative pronouns dat /dɔt+t/ that, which; who, whom, datsto/datste/datst /dɔt+t+st(+{do:/də})/ that you, which you; whom you, dy't /di+t/ that, which; who, whom, dy'tsto/dy'tste/dy'tst /di+t+st(+{do:/də})/ that you, which you; whom you and the possessive pronouns in nominal use dines /din+əs/, dinen /din+ən/, and dinent /din+ən+t/ yours are inflected forms, which is the reason why some of them consist of more than one syllable.
Monosyllabicity makes these /d/-words suitable candidates for partaking in cliticization (see cliticization), that is, they tend to form one phonological word with the words preceding or following them, which serve as their 'phonological host'.
Since schwa is too weak to be the only vowel of a (phonological) word, de /də/ the and der /dər/ there always act as clitics. For the /d/-words with a full vowel - which can also bear stress -, there are two options: either they undergo cliticization or they make up a phonological word of their own.
When a /d/-word makes up a phonological word with a host word on its left, regressive voice assimilation is impossible, for the latter only applies between separate words. The internal consonant sequences in a host + clitic combination therefore must be in accordance with conditions on such clusters within the boundaries of the phonological word. Now, clusters of two plosives within the word − occurring chiefly in derived and inflected forms − are always realized as voiceless (see Zonneveld (1983) for this observation as to Dutch). Progressive voice assimilation induced by the host-final (voiceless) plosive onto the initial /d/ of the /d/-word links up with this pattern. When the /d/-word leans on a host word on its right, or when it does not cliticize at all, the final plosive of the left-hand word and the initial /d/ of the function word do not belong to one and the same phonological word, hence regressive voice assimilation obtains.
The patterns showing up in (2) deserve some comment.
- The /d/-words with schwa are de /də/ the and der /dər/ there. A canonical Frisian word has two vowels at most, viz. a full vowel and schwa, in that order. In the normal case then de and der have a host word on the left, which implies progressive voice assimilation and a voiceless cluster of plosives. A voiced cluster sounds odd.
- The /d/-words with a full vowel can have a host word on their left as well as on their right. In principle, then, both progressive and regressive voice assimilation are possible. Yet, a voiced cluster of plosives strikes one as a little odd, in any case as less normal than a voiceless one. Monosyllabic function words seem to have a strong inherent preference for acting as enclitics.
- The /d/-words with a full vowel behave asymmetrically with respect to host words ending in [-p] and [-k] on the one and [-t] on the other hand. The former combinations allow for progressive as well as regressive assimilation, resulting in both voiceless and voiced clusters, whereas the latter combinations only result in progressive assimilation and voiceless clusters. It is unclear why this should be the case.
The voiced fricatives — /v/, /z/, and /ɣ/ — show a preference for being preceded by a long sequence, viz. a long monophthong, a falling or centring diphthong or a short vowel + l/r, while the voiceless fricatives — /f/, /s/, and /x/ — prefer to follow a short sequence, i.e. a short monophhong or a (short) rising diphthong (see the obstruents: the fricatives). That is why words ending in a fricative are expected to yield different outcomes from words ending in a plosive. Examples with fricative-final host words are given in (3) and (4):
Examples of the voicing behaviour of the /d/ of /d/-words following a word ending in a fricative preceded by a short vowel | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | With [s] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik mis de bus sa noch | [mɪstə] | [mɪzdə] | this way I will miss the bus | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik ros der al in hiel skoft op om | [rostər] | [rozdər] | I have rubbed that spot for quite some time now | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik mís dy sa | [*mɪsti] | [mɪzdi] | I míss you so | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik mis dý/dij sa | [*mɪsti/mɪstɛj] | [mɪzdi/mɪzdɛj] | It is you that I miss | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
it gas dat jim ferbrûke | [*ɡɔstɔt] | [ɡɔzdɔt] | The gass which you use up | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de tas dy't se kocht hat | [*tɔstit] | [tɔzdit] | the handbag which she has bought | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
pas dan ek wat better op! | [*?pɔstɔn] | [pɔzdɔn] | be more careful! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wêr stiet de rys dan? | [*ristɔn] | [rizdɔn] | where do I find the rice then? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
stiet dat pakhús dêr noch? | [*pakhystɛ:r] | [pakhyzdɛ:r] | is that warehouse still there? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | With [f] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik skaf de belestingen ôf | [skaftə] | [skavdə] | I do away with taxes | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik huf der fiks op | [høftər] | [høvdər] | I strike it firmly | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
muf dat it dêr rûkt! | [*møftɔt] | [møvdɔt] | how musty/stuffy it smells there | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de straf dy't er krigen hat | [*straftit] | [stravdit] | the punishment which they inflicted upon him | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hy hie de plof dus net heard | [*ploftøz] | [plovdøz] | so he had not heard the pop | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | With [x] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik rach de bern út | [raxtə] | [raɣdə] | I rant and rave to the children | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik kuch der flink op los | [køxtər] | [køɣdər] | I cough and cough | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wach dat dy hûn is! | [*vaxtɔt] | [vaɣdɔt] | how watchful that dog is! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wat wolst mei al dat gerach dan berikke? | [*ɡəraxtɔn] | [ɡəraɣdɔn] | what, then, are you up to with all that ranting and raving? |
Examples of the voicing behaviour of the /d/ of /d/-words following a word ending in a fricative preceded by a long vowel | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | With [s] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hy keas de maklikste wei | [*kɪəstə] | [kɪəzdə] | he chose the easy way out | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik lis der wol jild by | [*le:stər] | [le:zdər] | I will make up the deficit | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hy keas dy mei sin út | [*kɪəsti] | [kɪəzdi] | he deliberately chose those ones | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
in dwaas dat it is! | [*dwa:stɔt] | [dwa:zdɔt] | what a fool he is! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
it glês datst dêr hast | [*ɡlɛ:stɔst] | [ɡlɛ:zdɔst] | the glass which you have there | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik sis dy dat it sa komt | [*se:sti] | [se:zdi] | I tell you it will turn out like that | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wat is de priis dan? | [*pri:stɔn] | [pri:zdɔn] | what, then, is the price? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | With [f] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de hûn groef de bonke op | [*ɡru:ftə] | [ɡru:vdə] | the dog dug up the bone | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ik skaaf der noch wat oan | [*ska:ftər] | [ska:vdər] | I will try to improve on it | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de brief dy'tst skreaun hast | [*briəftist] | [briəvdist] | the letter which you have written | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wat brief dan? | [*briəftɔn] | [briəvdɔn] | which letter then? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dy brief dus! | [*briəftøs] | [briəvdøs] | that letter! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | With [x] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hy wol graach de stikken sjen | [*ɡra:xtə] | [ɡra:ɣdə] | he would like to see the documents | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
set dyn skoech der mar neist | [*sku:xtər] | [sku:ɣdər] | put your shoe next to it | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dreech dat it wie! | [*dre:xtɔt] | [dre:ɣdɔt] | how difficult it was! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
de wylch dy't dêr stiet | [*vilxtit] | [vilɣdit] | the willow which stands there | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hiest dy herberch doe mar sjoen | [*hɛrbɛrxtu] | [hɛrbɛɣdu] | if only you had seen that inn then |
The pattern which emerges from the above is fairly clear. A voiceless sequence occurs iff the /d/-word has the vowel schwa (so, in effect, with de and der) and the host-final fricative is preceded by a short vowel. In all other cases, the outcome is a voiced sequence.
In case the vowel preceding the fricative is short, see (3), regressive voice assimilation must be held responsible for the voiced sequence. The /d/-words with a full vowel do not seem to cliticize onto a fricative-final word on their left, which is in sharp contrast with their behaviour with respect to plosive-final words. The reason for this different behaviour is unclear.
If the vowel preceding the fricative is long, see (4), the only outcome is a voiced sequence, irrespective of the /d/-word having schwa or a full vowel. For the sake of the unity of the analysis, it is to be assumed that de and der cliticize leftward here. This means, that the voiced sequence cannot result from regressive voice assimilation. Nor can it result from progressive voice assimilation, for the host-final fricative has undergone Final Devoicing (see final devoicing: the process). Therefore it must be assumed that the voiced fricatives' preference for being preceded by a long sequence enforces a voiced word-internal fricative-plosive sequence here. The /d/-words with a full vowel do not cliticize onto a fricative-final host-word in general, so the length of the vowel preceding the fricative is irrelevant to them. This means that the initial [d] of the function words induces regressive voice assimilation here, yielding a voiced sequence.
Sipma (1913:27) notes that /ɡ/ often becomes [x] following the voiceless obstruents [p/t/k/s]. He gives the following four examples: it giet /ət ɡjɪt/ [ət xjɪt] it goes, ik gean /ɪk ɡɪən/ [ɪk xɪən] I go, opgean /op#ɡɪən/ [opxɪən] to open (of a door), and bûsgat /buz#ɡɔt/ [busxɔt] placket. Not only is /ɡ/ devoiced here, the resulting voiceless plosive, /k/, is also fricativized, yielding the voiceless fricative /x/. As to the first three examples, this fricativization may be viewed as an instance of dissimilation, since the sequences /tk/ (it giet), /kk/ (ik gean), and /pk/ (opgean), which consist of two plosives, are turned into the more dissimilar plosive-fricative sequences /tx/, /kx/, and /px/(see dissimilation). Dissimilation may be explainable here on the grounds that in the preferred case obstruents in a sequences show an alternation between plosives and fricatives or, put differently, they do not agree in continuancy; this means that a sequence of two plosives or two fricatives is less likely than a plosive-fricative or fricative-plosive sequence (see onset: sequences of two obstruents). This 'explanation', however, does not apply to bûsgat), where the preferred sequence /sk/ is turbed into less preferred /sx/. The above pattern has become obsolete. Nowadays, word-initial /ɡ/ invariably induces regressive voice assimilation (see regressive voice assimilation: type 1 and regressive voice assimilation: type 2).
Regressive place assimilation of a voiceless plosive is induced by a voiced plosive only (see regressive voice assimilation: type 1 and regressive voice assimilation: type 2). The progressive voice assimilation of word-initial /d/ treated in this topic is predominantly induced by a voiceless plosive. As to voice assimilation in general then a plosive only seems to bow to another plosive.
- 1913Phonology and Grammar of Modern West FrisianLondon, New YorkOxford University Press
- 1983Lexical and phonological properties of Dutch voicing assimilationvan den Broecke, M., van Heuven, V. & Zonneveld, W. (eds.)Sound Structures: Studies for Anthonie CohenDordrechtForis Publications