
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Clause splitting occurs when the main verb is separated from its lexical projections by a non-main verb, as in (1a), and permeation occurs when the clause-final verb cluster is interrupted by a non-verbal constituent, as in (1b).
a. | Gerrie het gevra of hy die boeke moet bring. | ||||||||||||||
Gerrie have.AUX ask.PST.PTCP if.COMP he the books must.AUX.MOD bring.INF | |||||||||||||||
Gerrie asked whether he had to bring the books. |
b. | ?Hy sal miskien moet die boeke bring. | ||||||||||||||
he will.AUX.MOD perhaps must.AUX.MOD the books bring.INF | |||||||||||||||
He will perhaps have to bring the books. |
Clause splitting in Afrikaans is reduced in comparison to Dutch by the fact that auxiliaries are always positioned after the main verb in the clause-final cluster, so that the following sequence is ruled out:
*Ek weet dat hy die boeke het gebring |
I know that.COMP he the books have.AUX bring.PST.PTCP |
To mean: I know that he brought the books. |
Splitting is also reduced by the leftward movement of past participles, e.g.
Hulle sê dat die boeke gebring moet word. |
they say that.COMP the books bring.PST.PTCP must.AUX.MOD be.AUX.PASS.PRS |
They say that the books must be brought. |
Non-verbal permeation is possible between various verb types in a cluster, but is categorically ruled out between a clause-final past participle and auxiliary, as in
*Ons hoor.PRS dat hy die boeke gebring gou het. |
we hear that.COMP he the books bring.PST.PTCP quickly have.AUX |
To mean: We heard that he brought the books quickly. |
A form of splitting occurs when a main verb is duplicated by topicalisation to achieve emphasis, as in (5a). Topicalisation is employed here to emphasize the importance of the action. In (5b) the discursive force of (5a) is matched by employing an adverb of degree.
a. | Sing sing sy graag. | ||||||||||||||
sing sing she gladly | |||||||||||||||
She is keen on singing. |
b. | Sy sing baie graag. | ||||||||||||||
she sing very gladly | |||||||||||||||
She is keen on singing. |
Clause splitting may be defined as the separation of a main verb from its lexical projections by a non-main verb in the same clause-final verb cluster, cf. Broekhuis et al. (2015:960). In (6) the direct object mielies is separated from the transitive verb plant by the modal verbs sou moes.
dat die boer mielies sou moes geplant het |
that.COMP the farmer maize will.AUX.MOD.PRT must.AUX.MOD.PRT plant.PST.PTCP have.AUX |
that the farmer would have had to plant maize |
Permeation can be defined as the intrusion of a non-verbal constituent in a clause-final verb cluster. In (7) the verb cluster sou moes geplant het is divided by the prepositional phrase in die lente.
dat die boer sou moes in die lente geplant het |
that.COMP the farmer will.AUX.MOD.PRT must.AUX.MOD.PRT in the spring plant.PST.PTCP have.AUX |
that the farmer would have had to plant in spring |
The basic order of the clause-final verb cluster in Afrikaans is assumed to be as in (8). The presence of an auxiliary in the cluster requires the main verb it governs to surface as a past participle.
MODAL VERB(S) – LEXICAL VERB(S) – AUXILIARY VERB(S) |
The inadmissibility of having an auxiliary preceding a participle in Afrikaans as in (9), a sequence occurring frequently in northern Dutch, generally prohibits a main verb from being separated from a projection such as a direct object.
*dat die boer mielies het geplant |
that.COMP the farmer maize have.AUX plant.PST.PTCP |
To mean: that the farmer planted maize |
On the other hand the inseparability of Afrikaans final het from the past participle it governs, separates the main verb from non-verbal constituents in the presence of modal verbs, e.g.
dat die boer mielies moes geplant het |
that.COMP the farmer maize must.AUX.MOD.PRT plant.PST.PTCP have.AUX |
that the farmer should have planted maize |
With auxiliaries other than het, such as word, a split is often avoided through a process of leftward movement or scrambling, e.g.
dat mielies geplant sou moes word. |
that.COMP maize plant.PST.PTCP will.PRT must.PRT be.AUX.PASS.PRS |
that maize would have had to be planted |
Lexical projections may involve direct or indirect objects, verbal particles, complementives, prepositional objects and clausal complements. Objects, verbal particles and complementives are generally restricted to a position before the verb cluster, while prepositional clauses may precede or follow it, and clausal complements follow the verb cluster. As the main verb may occur at the beginning or end of, or inside the verb cluster, any of these lexical projections can be juxtaposed with or, alternatively, separated from the main verb. Juxtaposition and separation are demonstrated for every projection type by example (12) to (16).
a. | dat die boer mielies geplant het. | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP the farmer maize plant.PST.PTCP have.AUX | |||||||||||||||
that the farmer planted maize |
b. | dat die boer mielies moes geplant het | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP the farmer maize must.AUX.MOD.PRT plant.PST.PTCP have.AUX | |||||||||||||||
that the farmer should have planted maize |
a. | dat sy die diamant moes uitgesoek het. | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP she the diamond must.AUX.MOD.PRT out.seek.PST.PTCP have.AUX | |||||||||||||||
that she should have selected the diamond |
b. | ?dat sy die diamant uit moes gesoek het. | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP she the diamond out must.PRT seek.PST.PTCP have.AUX | |||||||||||||||
that she should have selected the diamond |
a. | dat hy die muur moet pienk verf. | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP he the wall must.AUX.MOD pink paint.INF | |||||||||||||||
that he must paint the wall pink |
b. | dat hy die muur pienk moet verf. | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP he the wall pink must.AUX.MOD paint.INF | |||||||||||||||
that he must paint the wall pink |
a. | dat ons na die vakansie verlang. | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP we for the holidays long | |||||||||||||||
that we long for the holidays |
b. | dat ons na die vakansie kon verlang. | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP we for the holidays can.AUX.MOD.PRT long | |||||||||||||||
that we could long for the holidays |
a. | dat sy verneem wie die prys gewen het. | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP she enquire who.REL the prize win.PST.PTCP have.AUX | |||||||||||||||
that she is enquiring who won the prize |
b. | dat sy verneem het wie die prys gewen het | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP she enquire.PST.PTCP have.AUX who.REL the prize win.PST.PTCP have.AUX | |||||||||||||||
that she enquired who won the prize |
When two lexical verbs collocate, the non-main verb may separate the main verb from its projection, cf.
dat die eienaar hulle die huis laat verf het. |
that.COMP the owner them the house let.LINK paint.INF have.AUX |
that the owner let them paint the house |
The following examples show that permeation by a complementive is possible between a modal and a lexical verb, as in (18a), and between lexical verbs, as in (18b), but is marked between modals, as in (18c), and excluded between a past participle and auxiliary, as in (18d).
a. | dat hulle die huis sal beige verf | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP they the house will.AUX.MOD beige paint.INF | |||||||||||||||
that they will paint the house beige. |
b. | dat hulle die huis probeer beige verf | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP they the house try.LINK beige paint.INF | |||||||||||||||
that they are trying to paint the house beige |
c. | ?dat hulle die huis sal beige wil verf | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP they the house will.AUX.MOD beige want.to.AUX.MOD paint.INF | |||||||||||||||
that they will want to paint the house beige |
d. | *dat hulle die huis geverf beige het | ||||||||||||||
that.COMP they the house paint.PST.PTCP beige have.AUX | |||||||||||||||
To mean: that they painted the house beige. |
Combrink (1990:222) provides the following example of a long permeation between lexical verbs:
Ons het baie vinnig leer met handskoene aan werk. |
we have.AUX very fast learn.LINK with gloves on work.INF |
We learnt very quickly how to work with gloves on. |
The action expressed by the main verb of a clause is emphasised by means of topicalising it, a process comparable to VP split in Dutch, cf. Broekhuis et al. (2015:1045). Though this is predominantly a verbal construction, it may also apply to adjectives, adverbials, etc., as in (24).
a. | maar ken, ken ek hom nie | ||||||||||||||
but.CNJ know know I him not | |||||||||||||||
but I really don't know him | |||||||||||||||
J. Huisamen: Katryn, 2012, 138 |
b. | Sy pa kan op sy kop staan maar boer gaan hy nie boer nie. | ||||||||||||||
his dad can.AUX.MOD on his head stand.INF CNJ.but farm go.AUX.MOD he not farm PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
his dad can do his damnedest but he is definitely not going to be a farmer | |||||||||||||||
J. Kruger: Die vloek, 2012, 255 |
c. | Wegkom hiermee gaan hy nie wegkom nie! | ||||||||||||||
away.get PN.with go.AUX.MOD he not away.get.INF PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
He is definitely not going to get away with this! | |||||||||||||||
L. de Villiers: Kaapstad, 2012, 43 |
A verb may be duplicated in participial form:
Gevang gaan jy gevang word! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
catch.PST.PTCP go.AUX.MOD you.2SG catch.PST.PTCP be.AUX.PASS.PRS | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
You will definitely get caught! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
B. von Solms on RSG, 2017 |
Duplication may entail morphological variation:
a. | En koop het hulle hom gekoop | ||||||||||||||
and buy have.AUX they him buy.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||
And they actually bought it | |||||||||||||||
I. Salzwedel: Onvertelde stories, 2012, 16 |
b. | Voorlê lê hy jou voor. | ||||||||||||||
before.lie lie he you.2SG before | |||||||||||||||
It will definitely lie in wait for you. | |||||||||||||||
P.G. du Plessis on RSG, 2012, referring to death |
Example (23) shows topicalisation with ellipsis of the main verb:
Maar staan sal ek nie voor haar nie, nie so heeltemal kaal nie. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
but.CNJ stand will.AUX.MOD I not in.front.of her PTCL.NEG not so completely naked PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
But I will never stand in front of her, not so utterly naked. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
F. Smith: Kamphoer, 2014, 113 |
The duplicating construction is also employed with categories other than verbs, e.g.
saam gaan sy saam | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
with go she with | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
she is definitely going with | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
A.P. Brink: Philida, 2012, 110 |
- Broekhuis, Hans, Corver, Norbert & Vos, Riet2015Syntax of Dutch. Verbs and verb phrasesComprehensive grammar resourcesAmsterdam University Press
- Broekhuis, Hans, Corver, Norbert & Vos, Riet2015Syntax of Dutch. Verbs and verb phrasesComprehensive grammar resourcesAmsterdam University Press
- Combrink, J.G.H1990Afrikaanse morfologie: capita exemplaria.Academica
