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    Nominative and PP alternations
    quickinfo

    In this section alternations between the nominative or subject of a clause, on the one hand, and prepositional phrases(PPs) and some other structures, on the other hand, are discussed. Unstressed daar there and dit it both have nominative or subject related functions. But while daar is a preliminary subject anticipating the logical subject of the clause, dit is a PRO-subject or provisional subject.

    Daar
    In (1a) unstressed daar there introduces new information. The logical subject, 'n padda a frog is therefore indefinite. In the absence of daar, the logical subject fills the subject position in (1c). In (1d), the locative PP in die dam in the dam would have to fill the first position in the clause if the subject is extraposed.

    1
    a. Daar spring 'n padda in die dam.
    there jump a frog in the dam
    A frog is jumping into the dam.
    b. *Daar spring die padda in die dam.
    there jump the frog in the dam
    To mean: The frog is jumping into the dam.
    c. 'n Padda spring in die dam.
    a frog jump in the dam
    A frog is jumping into the dam.
    d. ?In die dam spring 'n padda.
    in the dam jump a frog
    A frog is jumping into the dam.

    Dit
    The dit it (a) may alternate with NPs which have a variety of semantic roles in subject function, (b) may anticipate a logical subject and (c) may introduce the foregrounded section of a cleft construction.

    Dit (a)
    In (2a) dit anticipates a subject which is inherent in the PP van die klokke because of the bells; die klokke functions as subject in (2b).

    2
    a. Dit sing in my ore (van die klokke).
    it sing in my ears from the bells
    My ears are singing (because of the bells).
    b. Die klokke sing in my ore.
    the bells sing in my ears
    The bells are singing in my ears.

    Dit (b)
    In (3a) ditInfinitive complement clauses: syntactic distribution anticipates the entire infinitival clause om water te bespaar to save water, the logical subject of the clause. In (3b) the clause itself replaces dit in subject position.

    3
    a. Dit is sinvol om water te bespaar.
    it is meaningful for.COMP water PTCL.INF save.INF
    It is meaningful to save water.
    b. Om water te bespaar is sinvol.
    for.COMP water PTCL.INF save.INF is meaningful
    It is meaningful to save water.

    Dit (c)
    A proposition, such as (4a), may undergo clefting in a couple of ways in order to foreground or focus on a specific constituent. The main clause usually contains the focus element, while the background is expressed by a relative clause. In (4b), where a dit it-cleft is in evidence, and in (4c), where a WH-cleft is employed, the focus is on my buurman my neighbour, while in (4c) and (4d) sy proefskrif his thesis is foregrounded.

    4
    a. My buurman werk aan sy proefskrif.
    my neighbour work on his thesis
    My neighbour is working on his thesis.
    b. Dit is my buurman wat aan sy proefskrif werk.
    it is my neighbour who.REL on his thesis work
    It is my neighbour who is working on his thesis.
    c. Wie aan sy proefskrif werk, is my buurman.
    who.REL on his thesis work is my neighbour
    Who is working on his thesis is my neighbour.
    d. Sy proefskrif is wat my buurman aan werk.
    his thesis is that.REL my neighbour on work
    His thesis is what my neighbour is working on.
    e. Wat my buurman aan werk, is sy proefskrif.
    that.REL my neighbour on work is his thesis
    What my neighbour is working on is his thesis.
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    [+]Subject functions of daar and dit

    In this section two subject functions will be discussed, that of daar there and dit it.

    [+]Daar

    The daar there, whether stressed or unstressed, may have various functions in a clause.

    Afrikaans daar does not have a form like er in Dutch or es in German as a morphological variant, but may reduce phonetically to [da] without dropping [d].
    Ponelis (1979:106) distinguishes, inter alia, locative, deictic, existential, impersonal and indefinite variants. The focus here will be on daar as a phonologically unstressed and non-deictic lexical item used as a preliminary subject anticipating the logical subject of the clause. (5a) shows that the logical subject, twee leeus two lions, cannot be omitted, and is anticipated by daar.(5b) shows that the clause can be complete without daar. As daar is employed to introduce new information, the subject cannot be definite, cf. (5c). The definite article die the in (5d) refers cataphorically to the relative clause that follows. (5d) is also an instance of existentialdaar. In (5e) we see a locative PP employed as grammatical filler.

    5
    a. Daar loop *(twee leeus) deur die bos.
    there walk two lions through the bush
    Two lions are walking through the bush.
    TK
    b. Twee leeus loop deur die bos.
    two lions walk through the bush
    Two lions are walking through the bush.
    c. *Daar loop die twee leeus deur die bos.
    there walk the two lions through the bush
    To mean: The two lions are walking through the bush.
    d. Daar is nog net die leeu wat ontsnap het, in die bos.
    there is still only the lion that.REL escape.PST.PTCP have.AUX in the bush
    Only the lion that has escaped is still in the bush.
    e. Deur die bos loop (daar) twee leeus.
    through the bush walk there two lions
    Two lions are walking through the bush.

    Even in its non-deictic usage daar retains its locative reference. Thus a daar clause with locative reference, such as the PP op die strand on the beach in (6a), alternates with a clause such as (6b), with the NP from the locative PP serving as subject and daar excluded.

    6
    a. Daar lê oral skulpe (op die strand).
    there lie everywhere shells on the beach
    Shells are lying everywhere (on the beach).
    b. Die strand lê vol skulpe.
    the beach lie full shells
    The beach is covered with shells.

    By comparison, an NP deriving from a temporal PP cannot replace daar in the same way:

    7
    a. Daar lê soms skulpe (in die winter).
    there lie sometimes shells in the winter
    Shells are lying there sometimes in winter.
    b. *Die winter lê (daar) soms skulpe.
    the winter lie there sometimes shells
    To mean: Shells are lying there sometimes in winter.

    The relationship indicated by (8a) and (8b), as pointed out byKempen (1984:317), suggests another alternation in which daar may be involved. This will not be pursued any further.

    8
    a. Daar is rafels aan die rok.
    there be.PRS loose.threads on the dress
    The dress is frayed.
    b. Die rok het rafels aan.
    the dress have.PRS loose.threads on
    The dress is frayed.
    [+]Dit

    In Afrikaans, the dit it has a variety of functions. Ponelis (1979:70-80) distinguishes three main types, viz. a referential, vacuous ("empty") or formal, and demonstrativedit (also cf. Van Schoor (1983:197). Three kinds of alternation in which dit as clausal subject or Nominative is involved will be discussed here: (a) dit as subject alternating with PPs having SOURCE, CAUSE, LOCATIVE and other roles, depending on the argument roles available to specific verbs, (b) dit as a particle anticipating the logical subject which follows, and (c) split constructions with the discursive function of foregrounding, i.e. dividing propositions into focus and background sections.

    (a) Subject replacements
    The subject of a verb such as sing to sing, and particularly in its sense of a sensation of 'ringing or buzzing in the ears', is rich in replacement possibilities. The origin, source or causes of the singing may vary considerably, from an internal, physiological cause to external singing or acting or even the lack of sound, and the meaning of the verb may vary from the registration of sounds to the interpretation of words and experiences. Thus in (9a) the subject which replaces dit, viz. die see the sea, indicates the SOURCE or ORIGIN of the ringing. In a corresponding dit clause the source is indicated by a PP headed by the preposition van from, as a result of, cf. (9b). In (9c) the subject sy ore his ears indicates the LOCUS of the ringing.

    9
    a. Die see sing in sy ore.
    the sea sing in his ears
    The sea sings in his ears.
    TK
    b. Dit sing in sy ore (van die see).
    it sing in his ears from the sea
    His ears are singing because of the sea.
    c. Sy ore sing (van die see).
    his ears sing form the sea
    His ears are singing because of the sea

    The following examples illustrate the use of even more subject roles, such as the possible physiological CAUSES of the ringing in (10a) and (10b), the musical or verbal SOURCES not only of the ringing but also of the concomitant experience in (10c) and (10d), and even the experience of the absence of sound, in (9e).

    10
    a. haar bloed sing in haar ore
    her blood sing in her ears
    Her blood sings in her ears.
    TK
    b. Die adrenalien sing steeds in sy ore
    the adrenalin sing still in his ears
    The adrenalin is still singing in his ears.
    TK
    c. Elvis sing in haar ore
    Elvis sing in her ears
    Elvis sings in her ears.
    TK
    d. Babs Laker se woorde sing in my ore
    Babs Laker POSS words sing in my ears
    Babs Laker's words sing in my ears.
    TK
    e. Die stilte sing in haar ore
    the silence sing in her ears
    The silence sings in her ears.
    TK

    The subject of most of the above examples would represent an alternation between dit and a full subject, such as haar ore her ears in (11), though not in the case of for instance (12):

    11
    a. Dit sing in haar ore van die stilte.
    it sing in her ears from the silence
    Her ears are singing from the silence.
    b. Haar ore sing van die stilte.
    her ears sing from the silence
    Her ears are singing from the silence.
    12
    a. ?Dit sing in haar ore van haar bloed.
    it sing in her ears from her blood
    Her ears are singing from her blood.
    b. *Haar ore sing van haar bloed.
    her ears sing of her blood
    To mean: Her ears are singing from her blood.

    In (13), dit in subject function, as in (13a), alternates with a LOCATIVE in (13b) and CAUSE in (13c), and in (14) with THEME in (14b) and CAUSE in (14c).

    13
    a. dit krioel van vreemde bakterieë
    it teem from foreign bacteria
    It teems with foreign bacteria.
    VivA-KPO
    b. Die Kavango-rivier krioel hier van die tiervis.
    the Kavango-river teem here from the tiger.fish
    The Kavango river teems with tiger fish here.
    VivA-KPO
    c. Koue rillings krioel oor haar vel.
    cold shivers crawl across her skin
    Cold shivers run across her skin.
    VivA-KPO
    14
    a. Dit brand en kriewel in sy keel.
    it burn and tickle in his throat
    His throat burns and tickles.
    VivA-KPO
    b. Die dokter begin kriewel in sy stoel.
    the doctor begin.LINK squirm.INF in his chair
    The doctor begins to squirm in his chair.
    VivA-KPO
    c. Hoendervleis kriewel oor Rikus se nek.
    goose.bumps creep across Rikus POSS neck
    Goose bumps creep across Rikus's neck.
    VivA-KPO

    (b) Dit-extraposition
    A discursive function of dit is to facilitate information processing by moving a clause such as a lengthy logical subject to the end of the main clause through the grammatical process of dit-extraposition. The dit in this function is referred to by Ponelis (1979:449) as a voorlopige sinsanaforiese dit preliminary sentence-anaphorical dit. In example (15) the logical subject is a clause introduced by dat that and in (16) an infinitival clause.

    15
    a. Dit is moontlik dat pryse gaan styg.
    it is possible that.COMP prices will.AUX.COP rise.INF
    It is possible that prices are going to rise.
    b. Dat pryse gaan styg, is moontlik.
    that.COMP prices go.AUX.COP rise.INF is possible
    That prices are going to rise is possible.
    16
    a. Dit was nie maklik om die skare te beheer nie.
    it was not easy for.COMP the crowd PTCL.INF control.INF PTCL.NEG
    It was not easy to control the crowd.
    b. Om die skare te beheer, was nie maklik nie.
    for.COMP the crowd PTCL.INF control.INF was not easy PTCL.NEG
    To control the crowd wasn't easy.

    (c) Cleft constructions
    Cleft constructions divide a proposition into two clauses for the purpose of contrastive emphasis, one of which then foregrounds the information in contrast to a background. In both cases the emphasis resides in the main clause and the background is expressed in a relative clause. The relative clause is separated from its antecedent, dit, in (17b), but not in (17c). In the latter case dit is optional and rarely realised. In line with the cleft construction in (17b), the first relative clause in (17d), wat in sy ore sing, will be interpreted as a relative clause following directly after its antecedent, die see, while the second relative clause, wat hom onrustig maak, is duly separated from its antecedent dit.

    17
    a. Die see sing in sy ore.
    the sea sing in his ears
    The sea sings in his ears.
    b. Dit is die see wat in sy ore sing.
    it is the sea that.REL in his ears sing
    It is the sea that sings in his ears.
    c. (Dit) wat in sy ore sing, is die see.
    it that.REL in his ears sing is the sea
    What is singing in his ears, is the sea.
    d. Dit is die see [wat in sy ore sing] [wat hom onrustig maak].
    it is the sea that.REL in his ears sing that.REL him anxious make
    It is the sea singing in his ears that makes him anxious.

    In (18a), deriving from a proposition such as (18b), the foregrounded section is once again the main clause. In (19a), which would derive from a proposition such as (19b), an INSTRUMENTAL PP, met die buitetrap with the outside staircase, carries the focus, while the background is expressed by an interrogative clause with an interrogative pronounhoe how as complementiser.

    18
    a. Dis dié soort praat wat messer Donato begin ontstel het.
    it.PN=is this kind talk that.REL Mr Donato begin.LINK upset.INF have.AUX
    It's this kind of talk that began to upset Mr Donato.
    A.H. de Vries: Siënese dagboek (in Eeu), 1996, 144
    b. Dié soort praat het messer Donato begin ontstel.
    this kind talk have.AUX Mr Donato begin.LINK upset.INF
    This kind of talk began to upset Mr Donato.
    19
    a. Met die buitetrap is hoe Piero in die kamer gekom het.
    with the outside.staircase is how.CNJ Piero in the room come.PST.PTCP have.AUX
    By the outside staircase is how Piero came in the room.
    A.H. de Vries: Siënese dagboek (in Eeu), 1996, 144, adapted
    b. Piero het met die buitetrap in die kamer gekom.
    Piero have.AUX with the outside.staircase in the room come.PST.PTCP
    Piero came in the room by way of the ouside staircase.
    References
    • Kempen, W1984Voorsetselverbindinge in Afrikaans.Nasou
    • Ponelis, F.A1979Afrikaanse sintaksis.Van Schaik
    • Ponelis, F.A1979Afrikaanse sintaksis.Van Schaik
    • Ponelis, F.A1979Afrikaanse sintaksis.Van Schaik
    • Van Schoor, J.L1983Die grammatika van standaard-Afrikaans.Lex Patria
    About this article
    Author(s): Jac Conradie
    Category: Afrikaans Syntax
    Keywords: benefactivecataphorcausecleft constructiondiscursiveextrapositionforegroundinggoallocativelogical subjectnominativepreliminary subjectsourcesubject
    Version: 1.0, May 2020
    Version history:
    version editor(s) date remarks
    1.0 Jac Conradie May 2020
    This is a beta version.
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