- Dutch
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
-
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
-
- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
-
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
In this section a variety of clause adverbials are discussed, i.e. adverbials related to the clause as a whole rather than to the verbal predicate alone. Some adverbials, for instance polarity and spatio-temporal adverbials, are used both as clause and as VP adverbials. Clause adverbials usually precede VP adverbials in the ordering of the clause and have scope over the entire clause. To determine whether its scope extends over the entire proposition, the adverbial is cast in a construction in which it precedes the clause in question, as in (1b).
When interpreted as negating an entire clause, the polarity adverbialnie not – usually followed by a clause or sentence final nie confirming the first negative – is a clause adverbial, e.g.
Erna het nie vanjaar 'n bonus gekry nie. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Erna have.AUX not this.year a bonus get.PST.PTCP PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Erna didn't get a bonus this year. |
As any adverbial preceding a clause negative is likely also to be a clause adverbial, this positioning is a convenient way to identify other clause adverbials. Thus a focus particle such as selfs even is preferably placed before the negative:
Sy het selfs nie 'n bonus gekry nie. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
she have.AUX even not a bonus get.PST.PTCP PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
She didn't even get a bonus. |
An aspectual adverbial such as the iterativedikwels often is also found in this position:
Sy het dikwels nie 'n bonus gekry nie. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
she have.AUX often not a bonus get.PST.PTCP PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
She often didn't get a bonus. |
Byna almost is an example of a clause-degree adverbial, e.g.
Sy het byna nie 'n bonus gekry nie. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
she have.AUX almost not a bonus get.PST.PTCP PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
She almost didn't get a bonus. |
Clausal modality may be verbal, for example epistemicmoet should in (6a), but it can also be done adverbially, through the evidential adverb glo reportedly illustrated by example (6b).
Clause adverbials can also be subject-oriented, as in (7a), or denote the stance that the speaker adopts in respect of the entire propostion, as in (7b):
A clause adverbial may also express the speaker's point of view, as illustrated in example (8).
Wat my betref, moes sy 'n bonus gekry het. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
what me concern must.AUX.MOD.PRT she a bonus get.PST.PTCP have.AUX | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
As far as I'm concerned, she should have received a bonus. |
Temporal and locational adverbials can function as clause adverbials when they precede another clause adverbial, as in examples (9a) and (9b), respectively.
Various contingency adverbials are used, for instance to refer to the cause of something:
Sy het as gevolg van beurtkrag geld verloor. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
she have.AUX as result of load.shedding money lose.PST.PTCP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
She lost money as a result of load shedding |
The domain in which an event is situated may also be expressed by a clause adverbial, e.g.
Sy makeer sielkundig heeltemal niks. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
she lack psychologically entirely nothing | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Nothing at all is wrong with her psychologically. |
In exampole (12), ook also is a conjunctive adverbial.
Sy is nie ryk nie, maar ook nie suinig nie. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
she is not rich PTCL.NEG but.CNJ also not stingy PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
She is not rich, but she isn't stingy either. |
A number of adverbials relate to the way an utterance expresses a speech act, e.g.
Om die waarheid te sê, Erna verjaar vandag. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
for.COMP the truth PTCL.INF say.INF Erna celebrate.her.birthday today | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
To tell the truth, it's Erna's birthday today. |
- Polarity adverbials
- Focus particles
- Aspectual adverbials
- Clause-degree adverbials
- Modal verbs and adverbials
- Subject-oriented adverbials
- Stance adverbials
- Point-of-view adverbials
- Spatio-temporal adverbials
- Contingency adverbials
- Domain adverbials
- Conjunctive adverbials
- Speech-act related adverbials
This section discusses the negative adverb nie not and its unstressed clause-final correlate nie by means of which the proposition contained in a clause is negated, as in (14a), and its affirmative counterpart wel indeed which emphatically affirms such a proposition, as in (14b). Unlike nie, wel may be superfluous as truthfulness is the default value of a declarative sentence. In (14c) it is indicated how nie and wel are used contrastively.
The scope test indicates that both nie and wel are clause adverbials:
The adverb nie can also be used in constituent negation, for instance in (16a), where almal everyone is negated. With the alternative order in (16b), both constituent and propositional negation may be intended:
Almal het nie opgedaag nie. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
all have.AUX not up.turn.PST.PTCP PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
No one turned up. / Not everyone turned up. |
In Afrikaans the scope of the negation, which may extend over more than one clause in a complex sentence, is demarcated by the second nie. This is possible in sentences with omdat because as coordinator:
With want because as coordinator, nie cannot have scope across want:
Particles such as net just, only, ook only and selfs even can precede clause negation as focus particles. They also satify the clausal scope test, as demonstrated by the examples in (20).
Some of these adverbials also function as clause adverbials without collocating with the negative:
Aspectual adverbials which can precede sentence negation include habitual adverbials such as gewoonlik usually, frequentative adverbials such as dikwels often, continuative adverbials such as nog (steeds) still and iterative adverbials such as weer again. The fact that they precede sentence negation is an indication that they are clausal rather than VP adverbials. This is also borne out by the scope test, as illustrated by the examples in (22).
When these adverbials are placed after the negative, they are usually VP adverbials, as shown in (23).
Baiekeer very often in (24a) occurs before the first negation and the clause adverbial waarskynlik probably and is therefore a clause adverbial (cf. (24ai)). However, in (24b), where it occurs after the first negation and waarskynlik, the negation functions as a constituent negation (cf. example (16) and baiekeer is a VP adverbial.
Adverbials such as byna almost and amper almost, which are synonymous in Afrikaans, indicate the degree to which a proposition is realised:
A small set of adverbials are postposed to the negative as downtoners, i.e. to render the negative less absolute, viz. eintlik really, actually, the pair rêrig and regtig really, and juis exactly, particularly, e.g. (26a). As a collocation, nie eintlik not really functions as a clause adverbial, cf. the scope test in (26b).
Modality not only plays a part in the VP, but may also express an evaluation of the factuality of the proposition as a whole. A distinction may be made between epistemic modality, which evaluates the degree of factuality of a proposition, and evidential modality, which evaluates the type of factuality of a proposition. Epistemic modality may be verbal or adverbial in nature.
Kan presents the proposition as a possible conclusion, moet presents the proposition as necessarily true, and sal presents the proposition as predictable on the basis of available evidence.
Evidential judgments are related to the source of the information on which the judgment is based. The modal preterite sou may hint at a rumour, and is therefore evidential in nature:
Mnr X sou sy vrou verlaat het. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Mr X will.AUX.MOD.PRT his wife leave.PST.PTCP have.AUX | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Mr X is rumoured to have left his wife. |
Skyn to seem in (29a) indicates that the truthfulness of the information is restricted to appearances or rumours, while blyk to turn out in (29b) suggests that a source can be identified, i.e. direct evidence.
The adverbials miskien perhaps, dalk perhaps and moontlik possibly express possibility or probability, and also have clausal reference, as shown by the examples in (31).
A wide range of attitudes is expressed by clausal adverbials such as the following: waarskynlik probably, natuurlik naturally, ongetwyfeld undoubtedly, vermoedelik supposedly, sekerlik certainly, blykbaar apparently, duidelik clearly, kennelik obviously, oënskynlik seemingly and vermoedelik supposedly, as exemplified by the examples in (32).
Subject-oriented adverbials reflect the evaluation of the agent in regard to an action. Thus goedgunstiglik graciously in (33a) expresses the speaker's attitude, while wyslik wisely in (33b) expresses his judgment in regard to an action. The deadjectival adverb mooitjies nice.DIM.PL in (33c), with nominal diminutive and plural inflection attached to an adjectival stem, expresses the speaker's appreciation of the dog's astuteness. These are all causal adverbials, but the phrasal test may require slight adaptation in order to produce a synonymous utterance:
A stance adverbialexpresses an attitude of the speaker towards the entire propositon contained in the clause. These may have epistemic implications for the assessment of the truth of the proposition, or can be a more subjective evaluation of the proposition. A number of these, such as gelukkig fortunately, ongelukkig unfortunately, helaas unfortunately and begryplikerwys understandibly are factive in nature, as in (34a), whereas others, such as hopelik hopefully, are non-factive, as in (34b). In the latter case the speaker does not know whether the proposition is true, but would prefer it to be the case. All of these can be paraphrased as clause adverbials.
Other clausal adverbials which sometimes express even more subtle attitudes towards the proposition, the speaker him-/herself, the addressee or the proposition as such and often do not have English equivalents, are referred to by Ponelis (1979:294-298) as stelligheids- of kleuradjunkteprobability or colour adjuncts, e.g. sommer without further ado, darem after all, nogal rather, mos as you know, of course, kamma, kastig feignedly, hoeka all along, as a case in point, rêrig, regtig really, as exemplified in (35).
Some adverbials, such as beslis certainly, , sekerlik certainly and definitief definitely, make it clear that the speaker considers the proposition to be true; others, which may include the speaker, point towards the evaluator or source of the information, e.g. myns insiens to my mind and volgens Petrus according to Petrus, e.g.
Spatio-temporal adverbials are not only used as VP adverbials but also as clause adverbials. As VP adverbials they would follow an epistemic adverbial such as hopelik hopefully, while as clause adverbials they should be able to precedehopelik.. This is demonstrated in (37a) for a temporal adverbial, and in (37b) for a locational one.
Adverbials indicating cause, such as deur die droogte because of the drought, and reason, such as vanweë die vakansie on account of, as a result of, not only serve as VP adverbials but may also be used as clause adverbials. Cause and reason are prone to overlap, since reason has cause in its semantic scope. An adverbial is likely to be a clausal rather than a VP adverbial if it precedes another clausal adverbial, such as moontlik possibly, as illustrated by the examples in (38).
In example (39), concessional adverbial precedes beslis definitely, which is in turn another clausal adverbial:
Conditional clauses are also clausal, e.g.
A domain adverbial, such as polities politically, can also be used as a clausal adverbial, as illustrated in (41).
Conjunctive adverbial phrases are clausal constituents which are comparable in function to conjunctions. They may have a linking function, or indicate contrast or other relations between clauses. Functions that may be distinguished are linking, as in (42a), contrast, as in (42b), and contingency, as in (42c).
By means of certain adverbials, which may consist of a clause, phrase or single adverb, a speaker provides a guideline for the interpretation of his/her utterance, e.g. om die waarheid te sê to tell the truth, kort en saaklik in a nutshell and eerlikwaar honestly. As these are often only loosely integrated with the clause, the scope test is relatively superfluous.
- 1979Afrikaanse sintaksis.Van Schaik