- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
Afrikaans has a number of (native, nativised and non-native) suffixes for coining person names and inhabitant names. These suffixes differ in input/output category, productivity, etc. Generally speaking, person names are unmarked for gender, since gender is not a grammatical feature of Afrikaans (except for pronouns). A person name is therefore in principal gender neutral (e.g. werk·er work·NMLZ worker), unless it is juxtaposed with a feminine counterpart (e.g. werk·ster work·NMLZ.F female worker). Such gender marking is realised through either suffixation (as in the aforementioned examples), or compounding (e.g. leeu+mann·etjie lion+male·DIM male lion, or wyfie+kat female+cat tabby (cat). However, note that feminine marking can be considered by and large obsolete and unproductive in Afrikaans (Combrink 1990:15), except in cases where gender is relevant, e.g. in discussions on single-sex schools, or whether the time that was run by an athlete was a male or female, etc.
An example of a native suffix forming person names is -aar (examples in (1)), of a nativised suffix is -er (examples in (2)), and of a non-native suffix is -or (examples in (3)).
Native (e.g. -ster in (4)) and nativised (e.g. -es in (5)) feminine-marking suffixes are either nominalisers, or category neutral when they append to existing person names, while non-native feminine-marking suffixes (e.g. -rise in (6)) are nominalisers:
Inhabitant names are gender neutral, and are formed with either native suffixes (e.g. -aard in (7)), nativised suffixes (e.g. -er in (8)), or non-native suffixes (e.g. -iet in (9)):
In addition to the above-mentioned morphological strategies to indicate gender and inhabitants, it could also be expressed periphrastically, e.g.:
vroulike lektor | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
female lecturer | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
VAW | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[Synonym for lektrise.] |
inwoner van Botswana | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
inhabitant of Botswana | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
AWS-11 |
Feminine marking is still more productive in Dutch than in Afrikaans. Compare for example the following Dutch cases that don't have equivalents in Afrikaans:
Dutch: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | wandel·aar·ster | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
walk·NMLZ·CN.F | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
female walker | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | student·e | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
student·CN.F | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
female student | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | histor·ica | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
histor(root)·NMLZ.F | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
female historian |
The productivity of Afrikaans suffixes forming person names, have not been investigated thoroughly yet. According to Kempen (1969:371-372), -er is the most productive suffix forming person names, and is in complementary distribution with -aar that occurs after stems ending in a coronal consonant preceded by a schwa. When -er occurs with stems ending in /r/ or /əi/, the interfix -d- is most of the time compulsory (e.g. in leer to learn > leer·d·er learner; bevry to emancipate > bevry·d·er emancipator). However, this distribution is not completely phonologically governed, since there are some nouns in -aar and -er with stems of a different phonological make up, such as ler·aar preacher, or dien·d·er policeman.
The following general, high-level schemata can be identified for derived person names:
- [[a](V)[b](NMLZ)](N) ↔ [person/agent who SEM(V)] (e.g. werk·er worker)
- [[a](ADJ)[b](NMLZ)](N) ↔ [person with property SEM(ADJ)] (e.g. wreed·aard brute, cruel person)
- [[a](N)[b](CN)](N) ↔ [person related to SEM(N)] (e.g. winkel·ier shopkeeper)
- [[a](N)[b](CN)](N) ↔ [female counterpart of SEM(N)] (e.g. baron·es baroness)
- [[a](PR)[b](CN)](N) ↔ [inhabitant of SEM(PR)] (e.g. Nederland·er person from The Netherlands)
- [[a](PR)[b](CN)](N) ↔ [follower of SEM(PR)] (e.g. Luther·aan Lutheran)
- [[a](root)[b](NMLZ)](N) ↔ [person related to SEM(root)] (e.g. lekt·or lecturer)
Some of the suffixes that create person names, also derive nouns denoting objects, e.g. -er in werk·er worker is also found in klits·er (egg) beater; and -or in lekt·or lecturer is also found in indukt·or inductor.
The native suffixes found in nouns that denote persons of male or unspecified gender are listed below; many of the nouns derived with these suffixes can also have an object noun reading. Follow the links to see discussion of the individual suffixes.
Suffix | Base category | Base | Derived form |
-aard | A | gierig miserly | gierig·aard miser |
PR (only two attested cases) | Spanje Spain | Spanj·aard Spaniard (other example is Savoj·aard Savoyard) | |
-and (allomorph of -end) | V (only two attested cases) | heil < German heilento heal | heil·and saviour (other example is vy·and < Proto-Germanic *fijēn-to hate) |
-e | ADJ | blind blind | blind·e blind person |
-en | PR (only one attested case) | Christus Christ | Christ·en Christian |
N (only one attested case) | heide heath | heid·en heathen | |
-end | V (only one attested case) | vry < Proto-Germanic *frijōn-to woo someone | vri·end friend |
-erd (allomorph of -aard) | A | stout naughty | stout·erd naughty child |
V | stink to stink/smell | stink·erd smelly person | |
-erik | A (only two attested cases) | dom stupid | domm·erik stupid (person) [pejorative] (other example is stomm·erik fathead) |
-ie (diminutive suffix, and all its allomorphs) | A | dom stupid | domm·ie stupid (person) [ameliorative] |
-ling (often combining with interfix -e-) | A | jonk young | jong·e·ling youngster |
V | huur to hire | huur·ling mercenary; hireling | |
N | guns favour | gunst·e·ling favourite | |
NUM | twee two | twee·ling twins |
There are four native suffixes for feminine marking, of which only one (i.e. -ster) is semi-productive.
Suffix | Base category | Base | Derived form |
-e | N | orrelis organist | orrelist·e female organist |
-egge | N (only one attested case) | dief thief | diev·egge female thief |
-in | N | held hero | held·in heroine |
-ster | V | tik type | tik·ster female typist |
In the case of be·ampt·e official, functionary one might be tempted to analyse the word as consisting of a circumfix be-...-e, since *beamp is not a verb in Afrikaans. However, the WNT indicates that the Dutch adjective be·ambtprovided with an official position was attested in 17th century Dutch, and the Dutch word be·ambt·eofficial, functionary is therefore derived using the same -e suffix as in blind·e blind person mentioned above.
A number of suffixes originated in Latin and Ancient Greek, but underwent such significant changes that they can be considered nativised. Such suffixes can combine, for instance, with lexical items from the native and non-native stratum.
Suffix | Base category | Base | Derived form |
-aar (often combining with the interfixes -en- and -n-; allomorph of -er) | V | min to love | minn·aar lover |
PR | Hongarye Hungary | Hong·aar Hungarian | |
N | sonde sin | sond·aar sinner | |
-aner (concatenation of non-native -aan and native -er) | PR | Italië Italy | Itali·aner Italian |
-er (often combining with the interfixes -d- and -t-) | V | wen win | wenn·er winner |
PR | Madrid | Madrid·t·er Madridian | |
P | draad sit wire sit to sit on the fence | draadsitt·er fence-sitter | |
NUM | tien ten | tien·er teenager | |
-ier (often combining with interfix -en-) | N | winkel store/shop | winkel·ier shop-keeper |
V | vlieg to fly | vlie·ën·ier pilot | |
PR (only one attested case) | Arabië Arabia | Arab·ier Arab | |
root | barb- < Latin barbabeard | barb·ier barber | |
-is (with allomorph -ist in PL and F constructions; often combining with interfix -en-) | N | alkohol alcohol | alkohol·is alcoholic |
PR | Boeddha Buddha | Boeddh·is Buddhist | |
root | kompon- < Latin componereto put together | kompon·is composer | |
-(oh)olis (confix from alkohol·is alcoholic) | N | werk work | werk·olis or werk·oholis workaholic |
-yn | N | chirurg surgeon | chirurg·yn ship's doctor |
PR | Argentinië Argentina | Argent·yn Argentine | |
root | praktis- < Latin practicareto do, perform, practice | praktis·yn practitioner |
The only feminine denoting suffix that is nativised, is -es, which is historically related to Latin -issa. Nativised -es is mainly in competition with native -ster.
Suffix | Base category | Base | Derived form |
-es | N | baron baron | baron·es baroness |
Derived N, ending in -er | dans·er dancer | dans·er·es female dancer |
A large number of non-native suffixes that form person names, can be identified in Afrikaans. However, very few of these are productive in Afrikaans, with the exception of those that combine with proper names to form toponyms, etc.
Suffix | Base category | Base | Derived form |
-aal | root | gener- < Latin genus, gener-kind | gener·aal general |
PR | Provence | Provens·aal inhabitant of Provence | |
-aan (often combining with the interfix -i-) | root | veter- < Latin vetus, veter-old | veter·aan veteran |
PR | Meksiko Mexico | Meksik·aan Mexican | |
-aat | root | advok- < Latin advocareto summon for counsel | advok·aat advocate |
PR | Asië Asia | Asi·aat Asian | |
-ak | root (only one attested case) | mani- < Greek maniamadness | mani·ak maniac |
-andus (with allomorph -endus) | root | doktor- < Latin doctoroto award a doctorate | doktor·andus person working towards a doctoral degree |
-ans | root (only one attested case) | ordon- < Latin ordo, ordin-to order | ordinn·ans ordinance |
-ant | root | remonstr- < Latin re-back; again + monstrareto show | remonstr·ant remonstrant |
N | debuut debut | debut·ant debutant | |
-aris | root | sekret- < Latin secernereto set apart | sekret·aris secretary (functionary) |
N | biblio·teek library | biblio·tek·aris librarian | |
-arius | root | ordin- < Latin ordo, ordin-to order | ordin·arius ordinariate |
-as (with allomorph -ast when followed by other morphemes) | root | entoes- < Greek enin + theosgod | entoes·i·as enthusiast |
-eel | root | krimin- < Latin crimenindictment; crime | krimin·eel criminal |
-een | PR | Chili Chile | Chil·een Chilean |
-ees | PR | Angola | Angol·ees Angolan |
-eet | root | atl- < Greek athleinto contest | atl·eet athlete |
-ein | root | kapt-, allomorph of kapit- < Latin caputhead | kapt·ein captain |
PR (only one attested case) | Rome | Rom·ein Roman | |
-ent (with allomorph -ënt in words like pasiënt pasient) | root | dos- < Latin docereto teach | dos·ent docent; lecturer |
-êr | root | vision- < Latin videreto see | vision·êr visionary |
N | miljoen million | miljoen·êr millionaire | |
-eur | root | massa < probably Arabic massato touch, handle | mass·eur masseur |
-iën | root | elektr- < Greek elektronamber | elektr·is·iën electrician |
-iër | root | ager < Latin agerfield | agrar·iër agrarian |
PR | Zimbabwe | Zimbabw·iër beggar | |
-iet | PR | Durban | Durban·iet Durbanite |
-ikus | root | histor- < Greek historwise man | histor·ikus historian |
-ino | root | baller- < Greek ballizeinto dance | baller·ino male ballet dancer |
-ioen | root (only two attested cases) | spi- < Old French espierto spy | sp·ioen spy (other example is kamp·ioen champion) |
-liet | root | prose- < Greek protitoward + root of eleusesthaito be going to come | prose·liet proselyte |
-oos | root (only two attested cases) | virtu- < Latin vir·tusmanliness; excellence | virtu·oos virtuoso |
-oot | root | sel- < Greek zeloszeal | sel·oot zealot, fanatic |
-tor (with allomorph -sor (as in sen·sor sensor), -toor (as in pas·toor pastor, and -oor (as in maj·oor major)) | root | modera- < Latin moderomitigate (or sens- < Latin sentioto feel) | modera·tor moderator (or sens·or sensor) |
-urg (sometimes combining with the interfix -t-) | root | metall- < Greek metallonmetal | metall·urg metallurgist |
A few non-native suffixes are used to derive female person names, all of which are by and large unproductive in Afrikaans.
Suffix | Base category | Base | Derived form |
-a | root (with masculine form ending in -arius, -ikus, -anda, and -enda) | prim·ari- < Latin primariuschief, principal | prim·ari·a chief female delegate; head-girl |
N | sultan sultan | sultan·a mother, wife, mistress, sister, or daughter of a sultan | |
-esse | root (with masculine form ending in -aris) | sekret·ar- < Latin secretariussecretary (functionary) | sekret·ar·esse (female) secretary |
-ette (with allomorph -et) | root | brun- < Latin brunusbrown | brun·et brunette |
PR | Paul (male first name) | Paul·ette (female first name) | |
-euse | root | mass- < probably Arabic massato touch, handle | mass·euse masseusse |
-ina | root | baller- < Greek ballizeinto dance | baller·ina ballerina |
PR | Paul (male first name) | Paul·ina (female first name) | |
-ine | root | blond- < Latin blondusyellow | blond·ine a blond(ine) |
PR | Paul (male first name) | Paul·ine (female first name) | |
-trise (often combining with the interfix -a-; also with allomorph -rise) | root (with masculine form ending in -eur or -tor) | ak- < Latin agoto do, act, make | ak·trise actress |
The following Dutch suffixes are not present in Afrikaans:
Person names are also formed through (neo-)classical compounding, with confixes like the following:
-faag | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
geo·faag | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
geophagist |
-fiel | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hidro·fiel | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hydrophile |
-foob | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
tegn·o·foob | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
technophobe |
-goog | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
peda·goog | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
pedagogue |
-graaf | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
foto·graaf | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
photographer |
-klas | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ikon·o·klas | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
iconoclast |
-kraat | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
tegn·o·kraat | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
technocrat |
-loog | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
teo·loog | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
theologist |
-maan | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
megalo·maan | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
megalomaniac |
'-noom | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
astro·noom | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
astronomer |
-nout | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
astro·nout | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
astronaut |
-paat | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
psig·o·paat | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
psychopath |
-soof | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
teo·soof | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
theosophist |
From the Germanic stratum, there are three gender-neutral suffixoids that form person names, namely:
kundigeexpert | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
plant÷kundige | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
plant÷expert | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
botanist |
menshuman | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
natuur÷mens | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
nature÷human | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
nature lover |
persoonperson | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
beskerm÷persoon | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
protect÷person | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
patron |
The affixoid man (functioning either as prefixoid or suffixoid) lost its original gender-neutral meaning of human, person, and is used in modern Afrikaans to form masculine person names, e.g.:
manman | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | man÷student | man÷student | male student | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | koerant÷man | newspaper÷man | pressman; male journalist |
Die gender-opposite affixoid vrou woman functions in exactly the same way to form female person names, e.g.:
vrouwoman | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | vrou·e÷student | woman·LK÷student | female student | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | koerant÷vrou | newspaper÷woman | press-woman; female journalist |
Consider also the following opposite pairs of suffixoids and prefixoids:
seunboy | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | tiener÷seun | teenager÷boy | male teenager | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | skoon÷seun | clean÷son | son-in-law | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | seun·s÷kind | boy·LK÷child | young boy |
meisie; dogtergirl; daughter | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | tiener÷meisie | teenager÷girl | female teenager | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | skoon÷dogter | clean÷daughter | daughter-in-law | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | meisie÷kind | girl÷child | young girl |
heer; damegentleman; lady | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | beskerm÷heer | protect÷gentleman | male patron | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | beskerm÷dame | protect÷lady | female patron | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | dame÷student | lady÷student | female student |
- 1990Afrikaanse morfologie: capita exemplaria.Academica
- 1995Het Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal (WNT)
- 1969Samestelling, afleiding en woordsoortelike meerfunksionaliteit in Afrikaans.Nasou
