
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
When used in conversational interaction, modal verbs may take on special functions in speech acts such as granting permission, giving directives, making promises and expressing wishes, thereby bringing about change in the pragmatic relationship between speaker and addressee. Thus ‘volition’ and ‘prediction’ may be used to express a personal commitment, as in:
a. | Ek wíl vandag die prys wen! | ||||||||||||||
I want.to.AUX.MOD today the prize win.INF | |||||||||||||||
I want to win the prize today! |
b. | Ons sál die oorwinning behaal! | ||||||||||||||
we will.AUX.MOD the victory attain.INF | |||||||||||||||
We shall be victorious! |
‘Possibility’ ascribed to the addressee may become an invitation:
Julle kan gerus van die toebroodjies kry. |
you.2PL can.AUX.MOD freely of the sandwiches get.INF |
You are free to have some sandwiches. |
‘Permission’ is expressed by:
U kan maar die vergadering verdaag. |
you.2SG.HON can.AUX.MOD in.fact the meeting adjourn.INF |
You may adjourn the meeting. |
Questioned ‘ability’ may form part of a request:
a. | Kan jy asseblief die sout aangee? | ||||||||||||||
can.AUX.MOD you.2SG please the salt pass.INF | |||||||||||||||
Could you please pass the salt? |
b. | Kan ek sommer saam met jou ry? | ||||||||||||||
can.AUX.MOD I just together with you.2SG ride.INF | |||||||||||||||
Could I perhaps get a lift with you? | |||||||||||||||
I. Roggeband: Noot, 2013, 145 |
c. | Kan ek vir jou iets kry om te drink? | ||||||||||||||
can.AUX.MOD I for you.2SG something get.INF for.COMP PTCL.INF drink.INF | |||||||||||||||
Can I get you something to drink? | |||||||||||||||
I. Roggeband: Noot, 2013, 79 |
Requests and other speech acts are mitigated by the preterite form kon could, as in:
a. | Kon ek dalk vanmiddag 'n bietjie vroeër gaan? | ||||||||||||||
can.AUX.MOD.PRT I perhaps this.afternoon a little earlier go.INF | |||||||||||||||
Could I perhaps leave a little earlier this afternoon? |
b. | Jy kon maar saamneem wat nie gebruik is nie. | ||||||||||||||
you.2SG can.AUX.MOD.PRT freely with.take.INF what.REL not use.PST.PTCP be.AUX.PASS.PST PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
You could take with you what hasn’t been used. |
Moet must may constitute a command (6a) and moenie must.not.AUX.MOD a request or prohibition (6b) if directed at the addressee, as in:
a. | Jy moet jou sokkies optrek! | ||||||||||||||
you.2SG must.AUX.MOD your socks up.pull.INF | |||||||||||||||
You must get your act together!’ |
b. | Julle moenie daardie deur gebruik nie! | ||||||||||||||
you.2PL must.not.AUX.MOD that door use.INF PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
Don't use that door! |
If the speaker wishes to cancel or relax the necessity of the action, hoef ... te need may be used, as in:
Julle hoef nie die vergadering by te woon nie. |
you2.PL need.AUX.MOD PTCL.NEG the meeting at PTCL.INF attend.INF PTCL.NEG |
You needn’t attend the meeting. |
A prediction can become a promise, as in:
Ek sal môre die inbetaling doen. |
I will.AUX.MOD tomorrow the deposit do.INF |
I’ll make the deposit tomorrow. |
If a future action is foisted on the addressee as if it were a certainty, the result may be as forceful as a command. This interpretation is ensured by adding emphasis to sal.
a. | Jy sál die deur sluit! | ||||||||||||||
you.2PL shall.AUX.MOD the door lock.INF | |||||||||||||||
You shall lock the door! |
b. | Hy sál uit sy bed uit en hy sál hier onder saam met my kuier. | ||||||||||||||
he shall.MOD out his bed out.POSTP and he shall.AUX.MOD here below together with me chat.INF | |||||||||||||||
He shall get out of his bed and he shall keep me company down here. | |||||||||||||||
F. Bloemhof:, Doodskoot, 2016, 210 |
Sal, also mitigated by the preterite sou, would serve as a polite request:
a. | Sal jy asseblief die deur sluit? | ||||||||||||||
will.AUX.MOD you.2SG please the door lock.INF | |||||||||||||||
Will you please lock the door? |
b. | Sou jy dalk vir verkiesing beskikbaar wees? | ||||||||||||||
shall.AUX.MOD.PRT you.2SG perhaps for election available be.INF | |||||||||||||||
Would you perhaps be available for election? |
Mag may and moet must are employed in wishes, the latter more colloquially:
a. | Mag julle van krag tot krag gaan! | ||||||||||||||
may.AUX.MOD you2.PL from strength to strength go.INF | |||||||||||||||
May you go from strength to strength! |
b. | Julle moet mooi ry! | ||||||||||||||
you.2PL must.AUX.MOD nicely drive | |||||||||||||||
Have a good trip! |
Modal verbs take on new meanings when when used in speech acts. Speech acts go beyond the mere exchange of information and have pragmatic implications for the speaker or addressee or the relation between them.
The expression of ‘will’ may become a ‘commitment’ even when directed by the speaker at him-/herself:
a. | Ek wíl vandag die prys wen! | ||||||||||||||
I will.AUX.MOD today the prize win.INF | |||||||||||||||
I shall win the prize today! |
'Will’ may be projected on an addressee, as in the case of a sculptor about to destroy a bust he has made in anger:
Maar hoor hier, jy wil nie regtig hierdie borsbeeld beskadig nie!” | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
but.CNJ listen.IMP here you.2SG want.to.AUX.MOD not really this bust damage.INF PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Listen to me now: you don’t really want to damage this bust! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
M. Heese: Maestro, 2016, 430 |
Wil is used in a polite request, as in (14a), mitigated by the negative without a change of meaning, as in (14b).
a. | Wil jy asseblief die skinkbord neem? | ||||||||||||||
will.AUX.MOD you.2SG please the tray take.INF | |||||||||||||||
Will you please take the tray? |
b. | Wil jy nie asseblief die skinkbord neem nie? | ||||||||||||||
will.AUX.MOD you2.SG not please the tray take.INF PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
Won’t you please take the tray? |
If a host insists on the ‘possibility’ of extending a visit, this may count as an ‘invitation’:
Julle kan gerus nog 'n bietjie langer kuier! |
you.2PL can.AUX.MOD surely even a little longer visit.INF |
Surely you can stay a little longer! |
Informing the addressee that there is no objection to an action envisaged by him/her is tantamount to granting ‘permission’ (16a) or may even be a threat (16b):
a. | Elsie, jy kan daardie vir jou vat as jy dit wil hê. | ||||||||||||||
Elsie you.2SG can.AUX.MOD that for you.2SG take.INF if.CNJ you.2SG it want.to.AUX.MOD have.INF | |||||||||||||||
Elsie, you may have that if you want it. | |||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
b. | Julle kan maar uitkom, ons sal julle tog kry.” | ||||||||||||||
you.2PL can.AUX.MOD freely out.come.INF we will.AUX.MOD you.2PL anyway get.INF | |||||||||||||||
You may come out now; we will find you anyway. | |||||||||||||||
H. du Plessis: As die wind, 2013, 208 |
By suggesting a certain readiness to perform an action the speaker may be offering to perform the action:
Ons kan die onderdeel vir u bestel. |
we can.AUX.MOD the component for you.2PL.HON order.INF |
We can order the component for you. |
In the context of a meal, a question such as the following is, through a process of inferencing, conventionally understood as a request.
Kan ek so 'n bietjie rys kry? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
can.AUX.MOD I so a little rice have.INF | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
May I have some rice? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
VivA-KPO |
Kon is used instead of kan to make a suggestion (19a), offer (19b) or request (19c) sound more tentative:
a. | Julle kon gerus nog 'n bietjie langer kuier! | ||||||||||||||
you.2PL can.AUX.MOD.PRT surely still a little longer visit.INF | |||||||||||||||
You should feel free to stay a little longer! |
b. | Ons kon die onderdeel vir u bestel. | ||||||||||||||
we can.AUX.MOD.PRT the component for you.2SG.HON order.INF | |||||||||||||||
We could order the component for you. |
c. | Kon ek dalk nog 'n bietjie kry? | ||||||||||||||
can.AUX.MOD.PRT I perhaps still a little have.INF | |||||||||||||||
Could I perhaps have a little more? |
Sham permission may be employed to express praise:
Jy kan maar bak! |
you.2SG canAUX.MOD freely bake.INF |
You really bake well! |
An 'obligation' ascribed by a speaker to an addressee, amounts to a request. In speech acts, moet is therefore usually a directive, an act whereby the speaker attempts to get the hearer to do something(Archer, Aijmer and Wichman 2012:39).
Julle moet asseblief die vergadering bywoon. |
you.2PL must.AUX.MOD please the meeting attend.INF |
You must please attend the meeting. |
In (22), the speaker applies the directive to herself:
Hy het gesê dis lozenges vir my keel, ek moet sommer twee vat. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
he have.AUX say.PST.PTCP it.is lozenges for my throat I must.AUX.MOD even two take..INF | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
He said they were lozenges for my throat, I should feel free to take two. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
F. Smith: Kamphoer, 2014, 157 |
If the obligation is explicitly removed, prohibition may result, as in (23). As a speech act, a prohibitive remains a request or directive.
Julle moenie die vergadering bywoon nie. |
you.2PL must.not.AUX.MOD the meeting attend.INF PTCL.NEG |
You shouldn’t attend the meeting. |
As the conventionalised form of the prohibitive in Afrikaans (see moet under Root meanings), the illocutive force of moenie equals that of an imperative:
Moenie daardie deur gebruik nie! |
must.not AUX.MOD.IMP that door use.INF PTCL.NEG |
Don’t use that door! |
If the speaker wishes to cancel or relax the necessity of the action, hoef ... te may be used, as in:
Jy hoef mos nie dadelik te gaan nie, Johannes. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
you.2SG need.AUX.MOD. surely not immediately PTCL.INF go.INF PTCL.NEG Johannes | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Surely you don’t need to leave immediately, Johannes. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
W. Odendaal: Landskap, 2009, 32 |
A confession may be mitigated by feigning obligation:
Ek moet darem erken ... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
I must.AUX.MOD all.the.same admit.INF | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
I must admit, all the same ... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
G. Taljaard: Engel, 2009, 41 |
A commissive is a speech act in which the speaker commits him/herself to do some future act(Archer, Aijmer and Wichman 2012:39). This may have its origin in an intention directed at the addressee, and have the force of a promise:
Ek sal later sommer self met hom praat. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
I will.AUX.MOD later just self with him talk.INF | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
I will just talk to him myself later on. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
J. Kirsten: Wit plafon, 2009, 161 |
When the prediction is made directly applicable to the addressee instead, thereby raising its status to that of a faît accompli in the addressee’s future, this may result in a directive of considerable force. The speaker’s intention is emphasized prosodically:
a. | Jy sál die deur sluit! | ||||||||||||||
you.SG will.AUX.MOD the door lock.INF | |||||||||||||||
You shall lock the door! |
b. | Julle sál nou drie maal om die veld hardloop! | ||||||||||||||
you.2PL will.AUX.MOD now three times around the field run.INF | |||||||||||||||
You shall run around the field three times now! |
c. | “Jy sal jou nou gedra,” sê Pietro afgemete. | ||||||||||||||
you.2SG will.AUX.MOD you.2SG.REFL now behave.INF say Pietro measured.ADV | |||||||||||||||
You shall behave now, Pietro said in measured tones. | |||||||||||||||
M. Heese: Maestro, 2016, 68 |
An unlikely outcome is the vehicle for indignation in:
Sy sal haar tog deur oom Petrus laat vertel waar sy moet slaap! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
she will.AUX.MOD her surely by uncle Petrus let.LINK tel.INFl where.CNJ she must.AUX.MOD sleep.INF | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
She certainly wouldn’t have uncle Petrus tell her where she must sleep! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
J.M. Gilfillan: Glas, 2007, 89 |
To mitigate requests or for the sake of politeness, questions containing sal or its preterite form sou are used. The addressee is given time to consider the request, hence the future projection of sal, while sou allows the addressee even more freedom by making the request more tentative. The addressee is afforded an opportunity to make a prediction of the speaker come true. Further mitigation may be introduced by appealing to the addressee’s ability (by kan/kon) to fulfill the request. This may be accompanied by non-verbs, such as the particle of polite request, asseblief please, an emotive epithet such as ou old and the – perhaps slightly ironical – use of the diminutive, as in gunsie favour.DIM:
a. | Sal jy asseblief die deur sluit? | ||||||||||||||
will.AUX.MOD you.2SG please the door lock.INF | |||||||||||||||
Will you please lock the door? |
b. | Sou jy dié ou gunsie vir my kon doen? | ||||||||||||||
shall.AUX.MOD.PRT you.2SG this old favour.DIM for me can.AUX.MOD.PRT do.INF | |||||||||||||||
Would you kindly do me this favour? |
Sou is used in a slightly ironical/emotive (disgruntled) way in a fixed expression:
Ek sou so dink! |
I shall.AUX.MOD.PRT so think |
I should think so! |
Wishes are expressed somewhat formally by mag, in a formulaic construction requiring inversion, and only have the force of a wish when directed at an addressee:
Mag dit aan al jou verwagtinge voldoen! |
may.AUX.MOD it to all your expectations fulfil.INF |
May it come up to all your expectations! |
In informal interaction wishes are expressed by means of declaratives with moet must, which derive their force from the urgency of ‘obligation’:
Julle moet veilig ry! |
you.2PL must.AUX.MOD safely drive.INF |
Drive safely! |
The wish in the following derives its urgency from the inherent ‘prohibition’:
Dit moenie môre reën nie! |
it must.not.AUX.MOD tomorrow rain.INF PTCL.NEG |
It musn’t rain tomorrow! |
- Archer, D., Aijmer, K. & Wichman, A2012PragmaticsRoutledge
- Archer, D., Aijmer, K. & Wichman, A2012PragmaticsRoutledge
