- Dutch
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
-
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
-
- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
-
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
-ster /stər/ is an unstressed, stress-neutral, productive, cohering Germanic suffix that creates nouns of common gender denoting female persons. Inputs are either verb stems or deverbal function names derived by means of -aar or -ier.
-ster formation | base |
werkster female worker, cleaning lady | < werken .V to work |
wandelaarster female walker | < wandel-aar .N walker |
winkelierster female shopkeeper | < winkel-ier .N shopkeeper |
As -ster derivations are of common gender, they take the definite singular article de. The plural of -ster formations is construed with -s.
The suffix -ster /stər/ is a nominalizing Germanic suffix of unclear origin (see Etymologiebank) that can be used productively to create nouns of common gender referring to female persons. It is the counterpart of nominalizations with the suffix -er (which may be seen as an instance of affix substitution) or it uses as its basis nominalizations in -aar and -ier.
According to Booij (2002:103), -ster is "primarily deverbal": a nonce formation*plogster will be interpreted by native speakers as a derivation from the (non-existing) verb *ploggen. Booij adds, however, that "speakers of Dutch tend to interpret this pattern as the substitution of -er with -ster after a nominal stem", i.e., in the case in hand, from *plogger.
In writing, formations such as operaster opera star may look like -ster derivations, but in fact, these formations are compounds with ster /stεr/ star as right-hand part. Written forms like voetbalster are ambiguous between compound /ˌvut.bɑl.ˈstεr/ football star (pl. voetbalsterren)) and /ˈvut.bɑl.stər/ female football player (pl. voetbalsters).
It has been claimed (Van Marle 1985) that -e is the default feminizing suffix, implying that -ster derivations are exceptional; Booij (2002:103) argues that this claim is too strong.
- -ster functions as the counterpart of deverbal -er formations, which can be seen as a case of paradigmatic word formation or affix substitution, because (unlike affix sequences such as -ier-ster and -aar-ster, cf. below) the affix sequence -er-ster does not occur. Verbal bases can be both simplex (e.g. kapster female hairdresser corresponding to kapper hairdresser < kappen to cut, to chop) or complex (ontvangster female receiver next to ontvanger receiver, tax-collector < ont-vangen to receive). If for whatever reason an -er derivation is impossible, then so is a derivation with -ster: no *valler or *valster on the basis of ergative vallen to fall, no *schamer or *schaamster from obligatory reflexive zich schamen to be ashamed, no *blijker or *blijkster from subjectless blijken to turn out. If the stem of the formation in -er has a special form, then so has the one in -ster, e.g. reizigster with extra -ig- next to reiziger traveller (< reizen to travel), tegenstandster with stem allomorphy next to tegenstander opponent (< tegenstaan against-stand to oppose).
-ster formations as counterparts of non-deverbal -er derivations are rare: no *rechtster as female counterpart to rechter judge, no *tienster next to tiener teenager, no *Amsterdamster next to Amsterdammer someone from Amsterdam. De Haas and Trommelen (1993:191) do, however, list examples such as dagloonster female day laborer (cf. dagloner day laborer < dagloon day's pay), wetenschapster female scientist (cf. wetenschapper scientist < wetenschap knowledge-ship science), misdadigster female criminal (cf. misdadiger criminal < misdaad wrong-deed crime), vrijwilligster female volunteer (cf. vrijwilliger volunteer < vrijwillig free-will-SUFF voluntarily) and VVD'ster female member or supporter of the political party VVD (cf. VVD'er member or supporter of the political party VVD), which may all be analyzed as cases of affix substitution.
- Regular deverbal -aar formations get, in principle, a female counterpart in -ster: wandelaar-ster female walker, verzamelaarster female collector. The same holds for certain other -aar derivations: beoordelaarster female evaluator (< beoordelen to evaluate), leugenaarster female lier (< leugen .N lie). -ster also attaches to person names with suffix -ier, e.g. winkelierster winkel-ier-ster female shop keeper and avonturierster avontuur-ier-ster female adventurer.
In some cases, we do not find -ster but rather -er + -es, e.g. zieneres prophetess is much more frequent than zienster prophetess. Certain other -er derivations allegedly have no female counterpart at all, De Haas and Trommelen (1993: 155) mention middenstander middle-class-er shopkeeper and opzichter overviewer, superintendent. However, both middenstandster female shopkeeper and opzichtster female superintendent have various hits on the internet.
marketentster sutler has no male counterpart, but according to the WNT it is not a Dutch -ster derivation but rather a loan from German which, via Italian, ultimately goes back to Mediaeval Latin mercatareto trade.
The restriction that there are no ergative verbal inputs is not absolute, especially for prefixed and separable complex verbs: we saw that there is no *valler or *valster on the basis of ergative vallen to fall, but we do find invaller understudy, invader, substitute and invalster on the basis of ergative invallen to replace, to raid.
Some -aar formations also take -es rather than -ster, e.g. lerares female teacher < leraar teacher. In other cases, both affixes are attested, e.g. molenaarster, molenares female miller and martelaarster, martelares female martyr.
In the Netherlands, passagier passenger and scholier student have a female form in -e (passagiere, scholiere); in Belgium one finds regular passagierster and scholierster as well (De Haas and Trommelen 1993:192), albeit rarely.
Inheritance of verbal argument structure is analogous to that of -er formations.
The suffix -ster does not bear stress and does not change the stress pattern of its base. Due to the phonological make-up of the affix, there will always be a syllable boundary coinciding with the morphological boundary.
Plurals of -ster formations are in –s, e.g. werksters cleaning ladies, winkeliersters female shopkeepers, martelaarsters female martyrs.
Geographical person names in -er or -aar never take -ster, so there is no *Antwerpenaarster next to Antwerpen-aar someone from the city of Antwerp or *Texelaarster next to Texel-aar someone from the isle of Texel, nor *Schiedamster next to Schiedam-er someone from the city of Schiedam or *Vlielandster next to *Vlieland-er someone from the isle of Vlieland. Instead, a derivation in -e from the pertinent adjective is used for the female inhabitant name: Antwerps-e, Texels-e, Schiedams-e, Vlielands-e.
Formations with the suffix -ster denote female person names: a schrijfster female writer is the feminine counterpart of schrijver writer. Some kind of professionalism or habit is often implied: not every woman who writes is a schrijfster. For deverbal -ster formations, the interpretation as Agent nouns is the default (e.g. schrijfster female writer, someone who writes), but Theme interpretations occur as well (e.g. martelaarster female martyr, woman who is tortured (to death)), completely parallel to the corresponding formations in -er, -aar, etc.
Regular diminutives are in -tje: werkstertje, winkelierstertje, martelaarstertje. Apart from diminutive formation, -ster formations cannot be input to further derivational processes. In compounds, they can, in principle, function both as left-hand and right-hand part as illustrated by verpleegstersuniform female nurse's uniform and ziekenverzorgster female sick people's attendant, nurse, respectively. If they function as left-hand part, -ster formations are usually followed by a linking phoneme /s/. If a deverbal -ster formation functions as the right-hand part of a N-N compound, the left-hand part is interpreted by default as a (semantic) argument of the verb (see also compounding), e.g. Patient in ganzenhoedster goose girl, woman who herds geese, Location in wereldreizigster world traveler.
De Haas and Trommelen (1993:191) mention obsolete voedsteren (< voedster foster mother, nurse) as the only verbalization of a -ster formation.
An alternative analysis for cases such as ziekenverzorgster female sick people's attendant, nurse and invalster understudy (< from the separable complex verb (SCV) invallen) would be as synthetic compound.
- 2002The morphology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- 2002The morphology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- 1993Morfologisch handboek van het Nederlands. Een overzicht van de woordvormingSDU Uitgeverij
- 1993Morfologisch handboek van het Nederlands. Een overzicht van de woordvormingSDU Uitgeverij
- 1993Morfologisch handboek van het Nederlands. Een overzicht van de woordvormingSDU Uitgeverij
- 1993Morfologisch handboek van het Nederlands. Een overzicht van de woordvormingSDU Uitgeverij
- 1985On the paradigmatic dimension of morphological creativityDordrechtForis