- Dutch
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
-
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
-
- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
-
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
This section deals with the overall distribution of the voiced and voiceless fricatives in the syllable rhyme. The former show a preference for being preceded by something long, whereas the latter prefer to follow something short. This pattern, however, has many exceptions.
Underlyingly, the voiced fricatives — /v/, /z/, and /ɣ/ — show a preference for being preceded by something long, viz. a long monophthong, a falling or centring diphthong or the sequence of a short vowel + a liquid ( /l/ or /r/), while the voiceless fricatives — /f/, /s/, and /x/ — prefer to follow something short, i.e. a short monophthong or a (short) rising diphthong. This is illustrated in the table below:
| With a voiced fricative preceded by 'something long' | With a voiceless fricative preceded by 'something short' | |
| /v/ | fiif /fi:v/ five (cf. mei ús fiven [fi:vən] the five of us) | |
| huver /hy:vər/ shiver | ||
| kúf /ky:v/ crest, tuft (cf. kuven [ky:vən] crests, tufts) | ||
| skroef /skru:v/ screw (cf. skroeven [skru:vən] screws) | ||
| sleef /sle:v/ wooden spoon (cf. sleven [sle:vən] wooden spoons) | ||
| gleuf /ɡlø:v/ groove (cf. gleuven [ɡlø:vən] grooves) | ||
| sloof /slo:v/ drudge, skivvy (cf. sloven [slo:vən] drudges, skivvies) | ||
| grêf /ɡrɛ:v/ grave (cf. grêven [ɡrɛ:vən] graves) | ||
| hôf /hɔ:v/ orchard; churchyard (cf. hôven [hɔ:vən] orchards; churchyards) | ||
| skaaf /ska:v/ plane, shredder (cf. skaven [ska:vən] planes, shredders) | ||
| salve /sɔlvə/ ointment, salve | ||
| ferve /fɛrvə/ paint | ||
| /z/ | priis /pri:z/ price; prize (cf. prizen [pri:zn̩] prices; prizes) | |
| slûs /slu:z/ lock, sluice (cf. slûzen [slu:zn̩] locks; sluices) | ||
| slús /sly:z/ lock, sluice (cf. sluzen [sly:zn̩] /locks; sluices/) | ||
| wees /ve:z/ orphan (cf. wezen [ve:zn̩] orphans) | ||
| reus /rø:z/ giant (cf. reuzen [rö:zn̩] giants) | ||
| noas [noəz] nose (cf. noazen [no.əzn̩] noses) | ||
| rôs /rɔ:z/ pink (cf. rôze [rɔ:zə] pink (inflected form)) | ||
| glês /ɡlɛ:z/ glass (cf. glêzen [ɡlɛ:zn̩] glasses) | ||
| baas /ba:z/ boss (cf. bazen [ba:zn̩] bosses) | ||
| hals /hɔlz/ neck (cf. halzen [hɔlzn̩] necks) | ||
| /ɣ/ | sig(e) /si:ɣ/ to be draughty | |
| túch /ty:ɣ/ harness (cf. tuge [ty:ɣə] to harness) | ||
| sûch /su:ɣ/ sow (cf. sûgen [su:ɣən] sows) | ||
| heech /he:ɣ/ high (cf. hege [he:ɣə] high (inflected form)) | ||
| teugel /tø:ɣəl/ the roots of reed | ||
| dog(e) /do:ɣ/ to be right | ||
| rêch /rɛ:ɣ/ back (cf. rêgen [rɛ:ɣən] backs) | ||
| nôch /nɔ:ɣ/ done, cooked (cf. nôge [nɔ:ɣə] done, cooked (inflected form)) | ||
| galge /ɡɔlɣə/ gallows | ||
| herberge /hɛrbɛrɣə/ inn, tavern | ||
| /f/ | wif /vɪf/ unstable (cf. wiffe [vɪfə] unstable (inflected form)) | |
| huff(e) /høf/ to strike, to beat | ||
| stûf /stuf/ surly (cf. stûfe [stufə] surly (inflected form)) | ||
| tûfe /tufə/ crest, tuft | ||
| twifel /twifəl/ doubt | ||
| (út e) rifels (wêze) /rifəls/ (to be) tattered, damaged; worn out | ||
| sifer /sifər/ figure | ||
| wifel(je) /vifəl/ to waver, to hesitate | ||
| túf /tyf/ crest, tuft (cf. tufen [tyfən] crest, tufts) | ||
| poff(e) /pof/ to pop, to bang; to roast | ||
| bef /bɛf/ jabot (cf. beffen [bɛfən] jabots) | ||
| stof /stɔf/ material, cloth, fabric (cf. stoffen [stɔfən] materials, cloths, fabrics) | ||
| straf /straf/ punishment; penalty (cf. straffen [strafən] punishments; penalties) | ||
| /s/ | grys /ɡris/ grey (cf. grise [ɡrisə] grey (inflected form)) | |
| fisel /fisəl/ mortar | ||
| krús /krys/ cross (cf. krusen [krysn̩] crosses) | ||
| bûse /busə/ pocket | ||
| wis /vɪs/ certain, sure (cf. wisse [vɪsə] certain, sure (inflected form)) | ||
| bus /bøs/ bus; tin; box (cf. bussen [bøsn̩] busses; tins; boxes) | ||
| kloss(e) /klos/ to clump; to build | ||
| les /lɛs/ lesson (cf. lessen [lɛsn̩] lessons) | ||
| tas /tɔs/ bag (cf. tassen [tɔsn̩] bags) | ||
| harnas /harnɔs/ armour (cf. harnassen [harnɔsn̩] armours) | ||
| /x/ | richel /rɪxəl/ ledge, ridge | |
| buchel /bøxəl/ hump, hunch | ||
| bochel /boxəl/ hump, hunch | ||
| ychel /ixəl/ hedgehog | ||
| nei gychem gean /ɡixəm/ go to ruin | ||
| gûchel(je) /ɡuxəl/ to conjure; to juggle (with) | ||
| ochel /oxəl/ dope, fathead | ||
| kachel /kaxəl/ stove, heater, fire |
| With the same meaning | With different meanings |
| rif /rɪf/ - reef /re:v/ reef (cf. reven [re:vən] reefs) | kich /kɪx/ cough - keech /ke:ɣ/ (cf. kegen [ke:ɣən] (plural)) somewhat elevated land outside the dikes which no longer overflows when it is high tide) |
| tûfe /tufə/ - tûve /tu:və/ crest, tuft | richel /rɪxəl/ ridge - regel /re:ɣəl/ rule |
| twifel /twifəl/ - twivel /twi:vəl/ doubt | klif /klɪf/ cliff - klev(e) /kle:v/ to stick (to) |
| snaffel /snafəl/ - snavel /sna:vəl/ bill, beak | wif /vɪf/ unstable - wev(e) /ve:v/ to weave |
| grys /ɡris/ grey - griis /ɡri:z/ (cf. the inflected forms grise [ɡrisə] and grize [ɡri:zə]) | fris /frɪs/ fresh - frees /fre:z/ fear (cf. freezje [fre:zjə] to fear) |
| bisel(je) /bisəl/ - bizel(je) /bi:zəl/ to twaddle | pis /pɪs/ piss - pees /pe:z/ tendon, sinew (cf. pezen [pe:zən] tendons, sinews |
| fisel /fisəl/ - fizel /fi:zəl/ mortar | wis /vɪs/ certain, sure - wees /ve:z/ orphan (cf. wezen /ve:zn̩/ orphans |
| tichel /tɪxəl/ - tegel /te:ɣəl/ tile |
This preference of voiceless and voiced fricatives implies that they cannot, in principle, stand in phonological opposition to each other in postvocalic position, i.e. neither stem-finally nor stem-internally. Minimal pairs, therefore, are hard to come by. The only ones are those in the table below:
| The minimal pairs with voiced and voiceless fricatives in postvocalic position |
| húz(je) /hyz/ to live, to stay - hús(je) /hys/ to egg on, to stir up |
| fyzje /fizjə/ (point of) view - fysje /fisjə/ index card |
| staazje /sta:zjə/ work placement - staasje /sta:sjə/ splendour; procession |
| heww(e) /hɛv/ to have - heffe /hɛf/ to lift, to raise |
| a. Words with a voiced fricative preceded by 'something short' | b. The words with a voiceless fricative preceded by 'something long' |
| haww(e) /hav/ to have | goochem /ɡo:xəm/ smart; sly, cunning |
| argyf /argif/ archives (cf. argiven [argivən](plural)) | sjofel /sjo:fəl/ shabby |
| taryf /tariv/ tariff (cf. tariven [tarivən] tariffs) | tafel /ta:fəl/ table |
| motyf /mo:tiv/ motive; motif (cf. motiven [mo:tivən] motives; motifs) | rimfel /rɪmfəl/ wrinkle |
| haze /hazə/ hare | (sk)romfel /(sk)romfəl/ wrinkle |
| dizze /dɪzə/ this; these | (sk)ronfel /(sk)ronfəl/ wrinkle |
| lizz(e) /lɪz/ to lay; to lie | ka(a)mfer /ka(:)mfər/ camphor |
| sizz(e) /sɪz/ to say | ka(a)nfer /ka(:)nfər/ camphor |
| muoz(je) /mwoz/ to make a mess | alsem /ɔlsəm/ absinthe |
| (oan) gruzels /ɡryzəls/ to pieces | balsem /bɔlsəm/ balm, balsam |
| poes /puz/ (pussy)cat (cf. poezen [puzn̩] (pussy)cats) | halsem /hɔlsəm/ collar, neck |
| presys /prəsiz/ precise (cf. presize [prəsizə] precise (inflected form)) | Jelsum /jɛlsəm/ village name |
| fluch /fløɣ/ quick, fast (cf. flugge [fløɣə] quick, fast (inflected form) | Skalsum /skɔlsəm/ village name |
| mich /mɪɣ/ fly (cf. miggen [mɪɣən] flies) | Wolsum /volsəm/ village name |
| diggels /dɪɣəls/ shards, potsherds | Ealsum /ɪəlsəm/ village name |
| doch /doɣ/ do (present tense stem of dwaan to do; cf. (wy) dogge [doɣə] (we) do) | |
| mogge /moɣə/ mug | |
| moggel /moɣəl/ fat woman | |
| oarloch /oərlɔɣ/ war (cf. oarloggen [oəlɔɣən] wars) | |
| bedrach /bədraɣ/ amount (cf. bedraggen [bədraɣən] amounts) | |
| slach /slaɣ/ blow, stroke (cf. slaggen [slaɣən] blows, strokes) | |
| gaggel /ɡaɣəl/ gums, gingiva (obsolete) | |
| krigel /kriɣəl/ diligent, energetic | |
| drûch /druɣ/ dry (cf. drûge [druɣə] dry (inflected form)) |
The latter words deserve some comment. First, the fricative /x/ does not show up in these forms (with the exception of goochem). Second, the remaining fricatives, /f/ and /s/, are never in word-final position, since they are always followed by the sequence of schwa plus a sonorant consonant (a liquid or a nasal). Third, the words rimfel, (sk)romfel, (sk)ronfel, kamfer, and kanfer have a short vowel followed by one of the nasal consonants /m/ or /n/ (the latter has developed out of the former) and they end in a liquid, viz. /l/. With the words alsem, balsem, halsem, Jelsum, Skalsum, and Wolsum it is the other way around: they end in a nasal, viz. /m/, and their short vowel is followed by the liquid /l/. There is, thus, a neat division of labour between the liquids and the nasals here. Fourth, the nasal and the fricative in rimfel, (sk)romfel, (sk)ronfel, kamfer, and kanfer are heterorganic, which is quite uncommon for sequences of nasal plus obstruent (see word-final clusters of a nasal and an obstruent). All in all then the words in (b) in the above table show a combination of uncommon features, which links up with the uncommonness of the voiceless fricative they contain.
In the words dizze /dɪzə/ this; these, lizz(e) /lɪz/ to lay; to lie, and sizz(e) /sɪz/ to say, (voiced) /z/ is preceded by a short vowel. In the northern part of the language area, these forms have the long vowel /e:/ — /de:zə/, /le:z/, /se:z/ —, which makes for the regular pattern.
Loan words ending in -aaf and -oof, like paragraaf paragraph; section, oktaaf octave, and filosoof philosopher used to have plural forms ending in [-fən], as in Dutch: paragrafen [paraɡra:fən], oktafen [ɔkta:fən], filosofen [filo:so:fən]. It is, however, not uncommon for these plurals forms to be pronounced with final [-vən], hence as [paraɡra:vən], [ɔkta:vən], and [filo:so:vən]. There appears to be a tendency to bring these loan words in line with Frisian phonotactics.
Loan words ending in -looch, like biolooch biologist and filolooch philologist, end in /-ɣ/, cf. the plural forms biologen [bijo:lo:ɣən] and filologen [filo:lo:ɣən].
Voiceless /s/ is preceded by a long monophthong in the non-native word endings -aasje /-a:sjə/ -ation, -eesje /-e:sjə/ -etion, and -oasje /-oəsjə/ -otion, as in nominaasje [no:mina:sjə] nomination, suppleesje [søple:sjə] suppletion, and emoasje [e:moəsjə] emotion.
Due to Final Devoicing (see final devoicing: the process), obstruents always show up as voiceless in word-final position, irrespective of the length of what precedes them. So, a verb stem like draav /dra:v/ to run (cf. the infinitive drave [dra:və] to run), an adjective like kreaz /krɪəz/ attractive, good-looking (cf. the inflected form kreaze [krɪəzə]), and a noun like each /ɪəɣ/ eye (cf. the plural form eagen [ɪəɣən]) have final [-f/s/x] when undeclined or uninflected: [dra:f], [krɪəs], and [ɪəx], respectively. It is therefore only in the onset of an unstressed word-medial syllable (a schwa syllable) that a fricative can show up as voiced (provided that it is preceded by 'something long').
Due to Regressive Voice Assimilation (see regressive voice assimilation: type 2), a fricative ends up as voiced when followed by a voiced segment, provided that the two are separated by a word boundary. This assimilation may obscure the effects of Final Devoicing. One of its side-effects is also that a voiced fricative may end up after a short sequence. Some examples of this are: in wif bestean /ən vɪf bə+stɪən/ [ə̃ vɪv bəstɪən] an unstable life, beflyster /bɛf#listər/ [bɛvlistr̩] ring ouzel, miswoeksen /mɪs#vuksən/ [mɪzvuksn̩] deformed, in wach baaske /ən vax ba:z+kə/ [ə̃ vaɣ ba:skə] a watchful, vigilant chap, fellow.
The effects of both Final Devoicing and Regressive Voice Assimilation point to the fact that the fricative generalization — preferably, voiced fricatives are preceded by a long sequence, voiceless ones by a short one — holds at the underlying level, viz. that it is a Morpheme Structure Constraint.
Simplex words ending in -ns, like glâns /ɡlɔ:nz/ glow; splendour, kâns /kɔ:ns/ chance, dûns /du:nz/ down, fuzz, dûns /du:ns/ dance, grins /ɡre:nz/ border, prins /pre:ns/ prince, lins /le:nz/ lens, ûns /u:nz/ hectogramme, Wyns /vi:nz/ name of a Frisian village, Turns /tø:nz/ name of a Frisian village, and Wûns /vu:nz/ name of a Frisian village, systematically have a long vowel (which surfaces as a long nasalized vowel, see nasal vowels and vowel length. The fricative, thus, follows a 'superlong' sequence here. This means that it is not covered by the fricative generalization, which only relates to the quality of a fricative after a long vowel, a falling or centring diphthong or the sequence of a short vowel plus a liquid, i.e. it pertains to a fricative in the third rhyme position. As a result of this, the above words may have final /s/ or /z/ in their underlying representations, as indicated above. Thus, glâns, grins, lins, Wyns, Turns, ûns, and Wûns have /z/, which shows up in derived and/or inflected forms, like glânzich [ɡlɔ̃:zəx] shiny, grinzen [ɡrẽ:zn̩] borders, linzen [lẽ:zn̩] lenses, ûnzen [ũ:zn̩] hectogrammes, Wynzer [vĩ:zr̩] from Wyns (adjective); inhabitant of Wyns (noun), Turnzer [tø̃:zr̩] from Turns (adjective); inhabitant of Turns (noun), and Wûnzer [vũ:zr̩] from Wûns (adjective); inhabitant of Wûns (noun). But kâns and prins have /s/, see kânsen [kɔ̃:sn̩] chances and prinsen/prinsesse [prẽ:sn̩/prẽ:sɛsə] princes/princess. The word dûns has /s/ or /z/ according to its meaning, see dûnzen [dũ:zn̩] down(-filled) and dûnzich [dũ:zəx] downy versus dûnsen [dũ:sn̩] dances and dûnsje [dũ:sjə] to dance.
One of the phonological features of the by now unproductive suffix -lik /-lək/ like (see -lik) is that it is only preceded by voiceless fricatives, whether or not the stem it has been attached to ends in a voiced or voiceless fricative. Some examples of derivatives with -lik are erflik [ɛrflək] hereditary (from the verb stem erv /ɛrv/ to inherit, cf. the infinitive erve [ɛrvə] to inherit), freeslik [fre:slək] terrible, awful (from the verb stem freez /fre:z/ to fear, cf. the infinitive freezje [fre:zjə] to fear), and eachlik [ɪəxlək] attractive (from the verb stem eag /ɪəɣ/ to look nice/good/well, cf. the infinitive eagje [ɪəɣjə] to look nice/good/well). The voiceless fricative here is preceded by 'something long' or, put differently, the quantity of the underlying vowel remains intact. This is not uncommon for surface forms (see also the Extra above on the effects of Final Devoicing).
There are, however, also derivatives with -lik where the fricative is preceded by a short vowel, which derives from a long one, as in geryflik [ɡəriflək] comfortable (from the verb stem geriiv /ɡəri:v/ to suit the convenience of, cf. the infinitive gerive [ɡəri:və] to suit the convenience of), húslik [hyslək] domestic; homey (from the noun hûs /hu:z/ house, cf. the plural form huzen [hyzn̩]), ôfgryslik [ɔ:ɡrislək] horrible, horrid (from the noun ôfgriis /ɔ:ɡri:z/ horror, cf. the variant form ôfgrizen /ɔ:ɡri:zən/ horror), pryslik [prislək] praiseworthy (from the verb stem priiz /pri:z/ to praise, cf. the infinitive priizje [pri:zjə] to praise), wyslik [vislək] wisely (from wiiz /vi:z/ wise, cf. the inflected form wize [vi:zə]), yslik [islək] hideous, dreadful (from the verb stem iiz /i:z/ to shudder, to shiver, cf. the infinitive iizje [i:zjə] to shudder, to shiver). Here, the short vowel and the voiceless fricative 'match'.
Some remarks are in order. First, it is mainly the close front vowel pair /i:/ /-i/ which figures in this shortening pattern. It should be noted that the close vowels are the shortest vowels of all. Second, due to the fact that -lik is an unproductive suffix, the words which have been formed with it are likely to develop unpredictable, non-compositional meanings, which may diminish the morphophonological pressure to keep vowel length in stem and derivative alike. Third, the words deeglik [de:ɣlək] reliable; solid, sound, mooglik [mo:ɣlək] possible, and daagliks [da:ɣləks] daily are exceptional in that the fricative preceding -lik is voiced. It can hardly be coincidental that they all have a long vowel.
